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NORTH AMERICA 

WITH AN ESPECIALLY EULL TREATMENT 

OE THE UNITED STATES AND 

ITS DEPENDENCIES 



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TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

SECOND BOOK 

NORTH AMERICA 

WITH AN ESPECIALLY FULL TREATMENT 
OF THE UNITED STATES AND ... 
ITS DEPENDENCIES 



\y BY 

RALPH Sf TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

i^- AND 

FRANK W: McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



WITH NUMEROUS 31 APS AND MANY IL LUSTRA TIONS, CHIEFLY 
PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 



Nefo fforfc 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1900 

All rights reserved 



62G9 

•Lit* . • ~~T 

JUN 15)900 

atraj iiwstfM 

JUN 27 1900 



Ge 









6 O 9 5 7 COPYRIGHT, 1900, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



\ v 






J. S. Cushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



*I 



rf 



PREFACE 

J v The plan of this series of geographies devotes the 
} UJ ^entire second volume to North America, thus providing 
space for a much fuller treatment than has heretofore 
been customary. In this treatment the authors have left 
the beaten track to such an extent that some words of 
explanation seem called for. 

Physiographic Basis. — The first four sections are 
given over to a consideration of certain necessary facts 
and elementary principles of physiography. 

While considerable space is devoted to this physio- 
graphic basis, an examination of the text will show that 
this space is used, not so much in introducing new 
physiographic matter, as in more detailed statements 
and explanations. Recognizing the inherent difficulty 
of the subject for young minds, and believing that, as 
ordinarily presented in the books, the children fail to 
grasp the significance of the important basal principles, 
the authors have attacked the problem in a new way. 

In the first place, they have approached the subject dif- 
ferently. Secondly, their controlling idea has been that 
only so much physiography should be introduced as is 
actually demanded to explain man's relation to the earth. 
With this view much physiography which has found its 
way into some of the modern text-books has been elimi- 



vi PREFACE 

nated; but that which has been retained has been deemed 
worthy of a fuller treatment than it ordinarily receives. 
The human relationship is pointed out in the sections 
on physiography, and again and again in the succeeding 
sections. 

Causal Sequence. — The authors believe that rational 
geography must rest upon such a physiographic founda- 
tion. It is physiographic conditions which most often 
furnish the reasons for the location of human industries, 
the development of transportation routes, the situation of 
cities, etc. In other words, when the physiographic facts 
about a given region are clearly grasped, most of the other 
geographic facts easily arrange themselves as links in a 
causal chain. Thus the many details touching a certain 
locality are taught in relation with one another, so that 
they approach the form of a narrative, rather than that 
of a mere list of assertions. 

It does hot necessarily follow that a given class of 
children should always begin with the physical features 
in the study of each section of country. For one reason 
or another some other portion of the causal series may 
serve as a better beginning. But the authors are con- 
vinced that in a text-book, written for large numbers of 
children endowed with varying apperceiving experiences, 
the physiographic features must furnish the best general 
starting-point in the explanation of the facts of political, 
commercial, and historical geography. 

Types. — Another characteristic of this volume is that 
it contains comparatively few topics, but deals with each 
one at some length. As was suggested in the Preface of 



PREFACE vil 

the First Book, the basal units for the study of geog- 
raphy, although constantly in use, are seldom adequately 
presented in the text. This applies strikingly, for exam- 
ple, to such topics as farm, cattle ranch, irrigation, lum- 
ber camp, and factory. In order to remedy this defect 
as far as possible, each subject of such a kind is presented 
with as much detail as space permits, and in connection 
with that section of country in which it seems most 
prominent. 

For example, lumbering, fishing, and the manufacture 
of cloth, boots, and shoes receive their most detailed 
treatment in connection with New England ; the mining 
of coal and iron ore and the manufacture of iron goods 
are discussed in connection with the Middle Atlantic 
States ; and gold mining, irrigation, and grazing are 
naturally included under the Western States. 

The industries and objects thus described, being fairly 
typical of industries and objects found in other sections, 
are on that account worthy of being called types. Through 
the careful presentation of such types, vivid pictures and 
the appreciation of the pupils are assured. 

Reviews. — The fact that a given industry in one 
section is in many respects unlike the same industry in 
other sections, offers no obstacle to this plan. Lumber- 
ing in Maine necessarily involves the essential features 
of lumbering in any place. Consequently, having built 
up a clear conception of the occupation in that locality, 
all that is necessary when lumbering in the Southern 
States, or in Michigan, or in Washington is studied, is to 
review what was formerly learned and state the principal 
points in which the conditions in the new region differ 



vi 11 PREFACE 

from those already described. Likewise, after the raining 
of ore in Pennsylvania is taught, the understanding or 
comprehension of the same industry as carried on about 
Birmingham, or in northern Michigan, involves a review 
of facts and a statement of leading differences, with the 
causes of these differences. Thus, as the study of geog- 
raphy advances, each new section becomes more and more 
a review of previous study, as it properly should be. 
By the plan of this series, the third volume, devoted 
to Europe and the other continents, will provide for a 
continual review of the United States. 

Study by States. — The common method of present- 
ing the geography of the United States is to use the state 
as the unit. The reasons for this, aside from an appeal 
to state pride, are not clear. Boundary lines between 
states are for the most part arbitrary ; they mark no 
important differences in physiography, industry, or cus- 
tom ; but, on the contrary, adjoining parts of two states, 
as, for instance, the adjoining parts of New Jersey and 
New York, near New York City, may be much more 
closely related than different parts of a single state. 

Partly for this reason the authors have set aside the 
state as the unit of study. But there are other important 
reasons for taking this step. When the geography of the 
United States is studied by states, there is much repetition 
of the same kind of facts. For example, mining, farming 
by irrigation, and grazing are common to all the Western 
States ; and when these industries are named separately 
for each state, a large amount of space is taken up with 
a minimum advance in the thought. More than this, the 
pupil is oppressed and confused by the great number of 



PREFACE IX 

individual facts which have apparently the same rank. 
It is not easy for even an adult to escape a feeling of 
confusion on reading a few pages from any modern geog- 
raphy which treats the subject Iw states. 

In order to avoid such waste of space and lack of per- 
spective among the facts, the authors have proceeded by 
groups of states, rather than by individual states. Thus 
farming by irrigation is only one topic, and only once 
treated, for the entire western division of states. Several 
pages are devoted to a discussion of the subject, including 
the manner in which irrigation is planned, its influence 
on the value of land, the localities most noted for irriga- 
tion, and the cities in the different states that are largely 
indebted to it for their growth. These many details are 
associated as parts of one story. It is believed that by 
this means the children's minds will be led to dwell long 
enough upon one topic to insure interest in the topic and 
at the same time to gain accurate impressions of both 
general principles and details. 

However, inasmuch as geographic facts are often called 
for by states, a study by states is provided for. At the 
close of each chapter there are two sets of questions, one 
of which closely follows the order of the text, while the 
other reviews the same facts by states. 

Summary. — Contrary to the usual custom, the broad, 
general principles about industries, distribution of inhab- 
itants, mutual relation of city and country, arid depend- 
ence of various sections upon one another are included 
in the closing chapter of this volume. One reason for 
this' change is that these large facts approach abstractions 
in their nature, and are, consequently, too difficult to be 



X PREFACE 

earlier appreciated by children. They are, moreover, to 
a large extent, a summary of what has preceded, and, 
therefore, naturally come last. In the same Avay, a broad 
study and summary of the world, particularly in its 
relation to North America, will close the third volume. 

Political Maps. — Since it is necessary to represent 
more places and present more details, the political maps 
in this volume are for the most part- larger than in the 
First Book. They are, however, of the same quality, 
and, like those of the First Book, were made by the 
Matthews-Northrup Company of Buffalo. An important 
feature is the grading of cities according to population, 
the larger the city the more important the type used. 
The principal features of relief are placed upon the map, 
though without interfering with the clearness of the 
political features. In the color arrangement care has 
been used to gain an artistic effect, and at the same time 
to preserve the distinctness necessary in such maps. 

No attempt has been made to preserve the same scale 
for the different maps. Some books claim to do this, 
and their authors point to the fact as noteAvorthy. The 
authors of this series have deliberately declined to make 
such an attempt for several reasons. In the first place, 
it is impossible. There must be maps of the World, of 
North America, of the United States, of a part of the 
great West, and of New England. Even in those books 
which point to their uniformity of scale as a merit, maps 
of five or ten different scales are in use. 

The claim for uniformity of scale has no real founda- 
tion ; but, if it had, the effect would be undesirable. One 
of the objects of the study of geography is to teach the 



PREFACE XI 

meaning and use of maps. To do this one of the first 
and most fundamental points is to teach the pupil to 
understand the meaning and importance of the system 
of proportion, or of "scale." In one book are maps of 
various scales ; in the first atlas, or the first wall map 
which the pupil sees, there are still different scales. The 
pupils must be prepared to expect and to understand 
these differences, and if is the teacher's duty to see that 
they are so prepared. By the insertion of Pennsylvania 
as a key, and by some of our map questions we have 
attempted to aid in this training of the sense of proportion. 

Other Illustrations. — Besides the relief indicated 
on the political maps, there are individual relief maps, 
made specially for this series by Mr. E. E. Howell of 
Washington. The relief maps of the continents, of which 
but one is included in this volume, are pronounced by 
experts to be the best thus far made. 

The city maps are intended to serve to illustrate the 
surroundings which determine the growth of a large city, 
including, of course, the transportation facilities by water 
and by rail. Attention is also called to the maps show- 
ing the distribution of important industries and the 
diagrams accompanying them. These are all placed in 
the summary, with which they are most closely related; 
but the teacher will, naturally, find occasion to use them 
and refer to them in connection with the study of the 
earlier sections. 

As in the preceding volume, the illustrations have been 
chosen not as pictures, but as illustrations. Usually they 
have been made from photographs of actual scenes. Pho- 
tographs carry more Aveight since they are of necessity 



xii PREFACE 

true, while drawings leave opportunity for the exercise 
of the fancy, and are oftentimes incorrect. In some cases 
no photograph could be found to illustrate the point 
needing illustration. For instance, the animal pictures 
were drawn by the Matthews-Northrup Company, and a 
number of other illustrations by Mr. C. W. Furlong of 
Cornell University. 

Acknowledgments. — While valuable suggestion and 
assistance have been received from many sources, the 
authors are again constrained to acknowledge particularly 
the aid received from Mr. Philip Emerson of the Cobbet 
School, Lynn, Massachusetts. The lists of books and the 
table of statistics have for the most part been prepared 
by Mr. R. H. Whitbeck of Cornell University, who has 
also rendered other valuable assistance. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART I. A GENERAL STUDY OE NORTH 
AMERICA 

PAGE 

Section I. Physiography of North America .... 1 
The Growth of the Continent, 1. The Coal Period, 3. 
The Mountains and Plateaus, 5. Volcanoes, 8. The 
Trough between the Two Mountain Systems, 9. The 
Great Ice Age, 12. The Coast Line, 19. Size, Shape, 
and Position, 21. Relation of Man to Earth, 23. 

Section II. Summer and Winter ...... 26 

The Sun and its Position, 26. Inclination of the Earth's 
Axis, 29. Revolution of the Earth around the Sun, 30. 
The Attraction of Gravitation, 30. Effect of Incli- 
nation and Revolution, 31. Summer and Winter, 32. 
The Length of Day and Night, 34. The Zones, 37. 

Section III. Wind and Rain 39 

Importance of Winds, 39. The Sea Breeze, 39. The Mon- 
soon Winds, 40. The Effect of a Stove, 41. Cause of 
the Trade Winds, 42. Effect of Rotation, 43. Effect 
of Revolution, 44. The Belt of Calms, 45. The Trade 
Wind Belt, 47. The Horse Latitudes, 49. The Pre- 
vailing Westerlies, 50. Eastern United States and 
Canada, 52. Weather Maps, 56. . 

Section IV. Ocean Movements and Distribution of Tem- 
perature ........ 59 

Wind Waves, 59. Tides. What the Tides are, 60. 
Height of the Tidal Wave, 61. Effects of Tides, 62. 
Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Currents, 63. The 
North Atlantic Eddy, 64. The Gulf Stream, 66. The 
Labrador Current, 66. The Currents in the Pacific 
Ocean, 68. The Importance of these Currents, 68. 
Distribution of Temperature, 71. 
xiii 



xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section V. Climate, Plants, Animals, and Peoples . . 70 
Climate, 7(3. Plants and Animals. Plants oe the North, 
77. Animals of the North, 78. Life on Mountain Tops, 
81. Plants and Animals in Western North America, 81. 
Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone, 85. Plants 
and Animals in the Temperate Part of North America, 
86. Cultivated Crops and Domesticated Animals, 90. 
Peoples. Eskimos, 92. Indians, 98. The Spaniards, 97. 
The French, 98. The English, 99. Westward Migra- 
tion, 102. Indian Reservations, 103. Slavery, 104. 
Immigrants to America, 106. 

Section VI. Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time . . 109 
Latitude and Longitude. Need of a Means for locating 
Places, 109. The Streets of a City, 109. Distance 
North and South of the Equator (Latitude), 111. East 
and West Distances on the Earth (Longitude), 113. 
Standard Time, 116. 

Section VII. The Continent of North America . . . 120 



PART II. THE UNITED STATES . . 121 

Section VIII. New England 124 

Physiography, 124. Climate, 127. The Forests. Cutting 
the Timber, 127. Floating the Logs to the Mills, 129. 
Sawmills and Paper-mills, 130. Maple Syrup and 
Sugar, 132. The Rocks. Granite, 133. Marble, 135. 
Slate, 136. Fishing, 136. Mackerel, 137. Halibut and 
Codfish, 137. Other Ocean Foods, 139. Agriculture, 
139. Manufacturing, 141. Cotton Manufacturing, 143. 
Wool Manufacturing, 144. Leather Manufacturing, 
145. Metal Manufacturing, 146. Largest Cities and 
Chief Shipping Routes. The Large Cities, 148. Bos- 
ton and Vicinity, 149. Summer Resorts, 151. 

Section IX. Middle Atlantic States ..... 15'i 

Physiography, 157. Climate, 161. Forests, 162. Fish 
and Oysters, 163. Agriculture. Dairying, 164. Tobacco, 
165. Fruits and Vegetables, 166. Mining Salt, 169. 
Coal, 170. Oil and Gas, 173. Iron Ore, 174. Iron and 
Iron Goods, 175. Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc., 179. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes. Location 
of New York City, 180. Erie Canal, 182. Railways 
of New York, 185. New York City, 187. Philadelphia 
and its Chief Shipping Routes, 191. Baltimore, 193. 
District of Columbia, 195. 

Section X. Southern States 200 

Physiography, 200. Climate, 204. Forests, 205. Agricul- 
ture, 208. Cotton, 209. RiCE r 212. Sugar-cane and 
Sugar, 213. Fruits, 216. Other Crops, 217. Grazing, 
217. Mineral Products. Coal and Iron, 218. Stone, 
219. Gold and Precious Stones, 219. Phosphates, 219. 
Manufacturing, 219. Leading Cities and Shipping 
Routes. New Orleans, 223. Memphis and Atlanta, 227. 
Other Cities, 228. Texas, 229. The Territories, 229. 

Section XL Central States ....... 234 

Physiography and Climate, 234. Settlement of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, 236. Agriculture. A Farm in Central 
Ohio, 238. Fruits, 241. Tobacco, 242. Fine Stock in 
Kentucky, 242. Caverns, 242. Corn, 243. Wheat, 245. 
Other Grains, 247. Cattle Ranching, 248. Lumbering, 
252. Mineral Products. Building Stone, 254. Petro- 
leum and Natural Gas, 255. Coal, 255. IronJDre, 256. 
'Copper, 258. Lead, Zinc, etc., 260. Clays, 260. Princi- 
pal Cities and Shipping Routes, 261. The Lake Cities. 
duluth and superior, 261. chicago, 262. elevators, 
265. Stock Yards of Chicago, 265. Manufacturing in 
Chicago, 267. Other Facts about Chicago, 267. Other 
Cities along the Lakes, 268. The River Cities. Cities 
along the mississippi, 269. clties along the missouri, 
273. Cities in the Ohio Valley, 275. 

Section XII. The Western States . . . . . . 281 

Early Settlements, 281. Physiography, 283. Climate, 
286. Mineral Products, 288. Lumbering, 293. Agri- 
culture, 296. Ranching, 302. Territories, 305. Scen- 
ery. The Yellowstone Park, 308. Colorado Canyon, 
310. Yosemite Valley, 311. The Cities. Cities in the 
Interior, 312. Cities on the Pacific Slope, 312. 

Section XIII. Territories and Dependencies of the United 

States ........ 322 

Alaska. Climate and Physiography, 323. Fishing, 325. 



XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Whaling, 326. Sealing, 327. Mining, 328. Cuba and 
Porto Rico, 330. Physiography and Climate, 331. For- 
ests and Minerals, 331. Agriculture, 332. The In- 
habitants, 333. Cities, 334. The Hawaiian Islands. 
The Volcanoes, 336. Climate, 337. Island Life, 337. 
Industries, 339. The Hawaiian Islands as a Coaling 
Station, 339. Guam and Samoa, 340. The Philippine 
Islands. Physiography, 341. Climate, 342. Resources 
and Industries, 344. Cities, 348. 

PART III. OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH 
AMERICA 

Section XIV. Countries North of the United States . . 351 
Canada and Newfoundland. History, 351. Physiography 
and Climate, 353. Lumbering, 356. Pishing, 358. Seal- 
ing, 361. Agriculture and Ranching, 362. Mining, 365. 
Trade Routes and Cities, 366. Islands North of North 
America, 372. 

Section XV. Countries South of the United States . . 378 
Mexico. Physiography and Climate, 378. History, 380. 
Agriculture and Ranching, 381. Southern Mexico, 385. 
The Mines, 386. The Cities, 387. Central America. 
The Republics, 389. The Nicaragua Canal, 392. The 
West Indies, 393. Jamaica, 394. Haiti, 395. Lesser 
Antilles, 397. The Bahamas, 398. The Bermudas, 399. 

Section XVI. Summary and Conclusion 403 

Physical Geography, 403. Population, 404. Country and 
City, 405. Country, 406. Cities, 418. Dependence of 
Different Sections upon One Another, 423. Relation 
to our Territories and Dependencies, 424. Other Coun- 
tries of North America, 424. Our Relation to Other 
Countries, 425. Transportation Routes, 427. Influence 
of Steam and Electricity, 430. Influence of Modern In- 
ventions on Mode of Life, 431. Influence of our Sur- 
roundings on Education and Government, 432. Relation 
between Man and Earth, 434. 

Appendix I. References to Books, Articles, etc. . . 437 

Appendix II. 'Tables of Area, Population, etc. . . . 445 



LIST OF MAPS 



COLORED POLITICAL MAPS 



FIGURE 

95. North America 












PAGE 

Facing 120 


97. 


United States 












122 


99. 


New England . 












124 


121. 


Middle Atlantic States 












157 


153. 


Southern States 












200 


178. 


Central States 












234 


211. 


Western States 












281 


250. 


Alaska .... 












322 


260. 


West Indies, with Map of Cuba and Porto Rico 


330 


270. 


Dependencies of the United States in the Pacific 


" 340 


275. 


Canada, Newfoundland, and Greenland 


351 


300. 


Mexico and Central America .... 


378 


359. 




436 


360. 


Mercator Chart of the Wo 


rld 










" 436 



RELIEF MAPS 



5. North America ....... Facing 6 

13. The Continental Ice Sheet ........ 14 

96. Physiographic Map of the United States (with names) . 122 

98. United States .......... 123 

101. New England ' . . . . 125 



122. Middle Atlantic States 
154. Southern States 
179. Central States 
214. Western States 



158 
201 
235 

284 



X V 1 1 1 



LIST OF MAPs 



CITY .MAPS 

FIGURE 

117. Boston - , Providence, Portland, and Worcester 

144. Buffalo, Rochester, and Albany 

146. New York City and Philadelphia 

151. Baltimore and Washington . 

174. New Orleans. Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta 

200. Chicago and Milwaukee 

204. St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, and St. 

209. Detroit. Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg 

244. San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle 

292. Montreal and Quebec ...... 



Pail 



OTHER MAPS 



36. Monsoon Winds of India 

40. Belt of Calms and Trade Winds 

42. Belt of Calms and Trade Winds 

44. Rainfall Map of the World 

40. Rainfall Map of the United States 

49. Weather Map of the United States 

50. Weather Map of the United States 
59. Ocean Currents .... 

63. Isothermal Chart of the United States. January 

64. Isothermal Chart of the United States. July 

65. Plant Zones of North America . 
84. Political Map of Xorth America in 1760 
86. Settled Part of the United States, 1790 

90. Northern and Southern Hemispheres 

91. Eastern and Western Hemispheres 

92. Meridians of Northern Hemisphere . 
94. Standard Time Belts of United States 

123. Map showing the Fall Line 



) LIST OF MAPS xix 

FIGURE PAGE 

141. The Erie Canal 182 

321. Density of Population in the United States . . . 404 

323. Principal Cities and Towns of the United States . . 405 

324. Principal Corn-raisinu Districts of the United States 400 
326. Principal Wheat-raising Districts of the United States 407 
328. Principal Oat-raising Districts of the United States . 408 
330. Principal Cotton-raising Districts of the United States 409 

333. Principal Tobacco-raising Districts of the United States 410 

334. Principal Fruit-raising Districts of the United States 411 

337. Coal Fields of the United States 412 

310. Iron, Copper, Oil, and Gas Districts. .... 413 

341. Gold and Sila t er Regions, in the United States . . 414 

347. Principal Forest Regions of the United States . . 416 

348. Fishing Grounds near North America .... 417 

349. Principal Manufacturing Districts of the United States 418 

353. Navigable Rivers of the United States .... 427 

354. Railway Lines in the United States ..... 428 

355. Principal Railways of North America .... 429 
357. Growth of the United States ...... 432 



Part I 

A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH 
AMERICA 



I. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 

The Growth of the Continent. — There are about one 
hundred million persons in North America at the present 
time, although a century ago there were scarcely one- 
tenth of that number. This wonderful growth has been 
largely due to the useful and valuable mineral products 
of the, earth; to the soil and climate which have allowed 
many different kinds of plants and animals to thrive ; 
and to the rivers, waterfalls, lakes, and harbors which 
have made manufacturing and shipping easy. 

As it takes time to build a house, and to prepare the 
boards from trees, the nails from iron ore, and the bricks 
from clay, so it takes time for the formation of minerals 
and rocks and for the building of a continent. In fact, 
millions of years have been required for that work. 

The story telling how North America was made is a 
very interesting one. It has been discovered by a careful 
study of the rocks ; and although there are many ques- 
tions that no man is yet able to answer, we are prepared 
to tell a part of the story. 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMETiICA 



At one time the earth was probably a white-hot sphere 
like the sun; but in time the outside cooled to a crust of 
solid rock. The interior, still heated, continued to shrink 
and grow smaller, as most substances do when eooling. 
This caused the solid crust to settle and wrinkle, much as 
the skin of an apple does when the fruit is drying. Water 
collected in the depressions forming the oceans, while be- 
tween them, where the elevation of the earth's crust was 
greatest, rocks appeared above the sea-level. Thus North 

America and the other 
continents were born. 

In its bain hood, al- 
though the centre of 
the continent was still a 
broad sea. the eastern and 
western parts doubtless 
resembled the West In- 
Fig. i. dies of to-day, which you 

A small picture of the West Indian region Will find Oil the map of 

as it would appear if the ocean water vr j_t. a • ^t^<- n- 

were removed Notice that the islands N 0rth America ( I Ig. 95, 

rest on a lofty ridge rising from the opposite p. 120). Those 

ocean bottom. . , n . , . . . 

islands are the highest 
parts of mountains arranged in a chain. They seem to be 
separated only because the ridges upon -which they rest 
do not rise high enough to reach above the water (Fig. 1). 
Although in early times North America consisted of 
mountain crests forming chains of islands, finally, after 
many changes, the mountains rose higher, forming a con- 
tinuous range in the east, and other ranges in the west. 
Then the plains between the mountains slowly emerged 
from the ocean, and a large part of the continent came 
into view. 




PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




The Coal Period- — Ages after the beginning', a period 
arrived when in the northern part of North America it was 
much warmer than now. and the rains were far heavier. 
During that period our coal was made out of plants. There 
is good proof that the coal 
used in our stoves and fur- 
naces is composed of plant 
remains. Beneath the coal 
beds, in the rock which was 
once soil, roots of plants may 
still be seen, while stems of 
plants, and even trunks of 
trees changed to coal, reach 
up into the coal beds. Also 
a careful examination with 
the microscope, or at times 
even with the naked e}'e, 
shows that coal is composed 
of bits of plants closely pressed together. Frequently 
the full form of a fern or leaf may be seen (Fig. 2). 

As the crust of the earth shrinks and wrinkles, the land 
is raised and lowered. Even now it is slowly moving in 
some places, and was doing the same during the coal period. 
At that time some of the old sea-bottom was raised above 
the water, forming extensive plains in the eastern part of 
North America. Plants had long been growing ; and 
these plains were so low and level that vast swamps were 
produced (Fig. 3), on which the vegetation was extremely 
rank, like a tropical jungle. After the swamp plants had 
grown for hundreds of years, the plains sank beneath the 
sea, and the vegetation became covered with layers of sand, 
gravel, and mud, which have since hardened into rock. 



Fig. 2. 

Rock containing a fossil fern which 
grew in the swamps of the coal 
period. 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



After another long period the sea-bottom emerged once 
more, and the dense swamp vegetation returned ; but this 
time the plants grew with their roots in the ocean mud which 
had buried the earlier swamp. After many more years the 
plains again sank, and the swamp vegetation was buried 
as before. This rising and sinking of the land continued 
for ages, one set of layers of rock, soil, and vegetation be- 
ing covered up 
by another, until 
many such sets 
were formed. 

Though the 
swamps were, no 
doubt, somewhat 
similar to those 
which may now 
be seen in many 
places, the vege- 
tation grew far 
more thickly, per- 
haps even more 
thickly than in the jungles of India or the everglades of Flor- 
ida. Also the plants were so different from those of the present, 
that not a single species now living grew in the coal swamps. 

When the plants died they fell into the water, making a 
woody matting which did not fully decay, because the Avater 
prevented air from reaching it. If it had been dug up and 
dried, it might have made good fuel. Indeed, it is now the 
custom in Ireland, Norway, and some other cool, moist lands 
to dig such matter out of the swamps and dry it, forming peat, 
a fuel used for cooking and heating. 

Some of the poorer coals of the West, known as lignite, are 
little more than peat beds partly changed to mineral coal. 
Other coal, called anthracite, found especially in the mountains 
of Pennsylvania, has been changed so greatly that it is as hard 




Fig. 3. 

The way the coal swamps appeared, so far as we can 
tell from the fossils which have been preserved. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



as some rocks, and is known as hard coal. Bat most of the 
coal that is mined, as that of western Pennsylvania and the 
Central States, although quite like a mineral, and harder than 
lignite, is not so hard as anthracite. This is called soft or 
bituminous coal. 

The woody matting that gathered in some of the swamps 
grew to be scores of feet in thickness ; but, on being cov- 
ered up, it was pressed more tightly together. As the 
number of layers above increased, causing the pressure 
to become very 
great, it gradu- 
ally changed in- 
to coal, making 
coal beds that 
are often from 
six to twelve 
feet in thick- 
ness. 

All this time, 
and at other pe- 
riods during the 
formation of the 
continent, iron, 
copper, gold, silver, building stones, and other materials that 
we need every day, were also being slowly formed in the rocks ; 
but we cannot now tell their story. 

The Mountains and Plateaus. — During the millions of 
years that the continent was growing to its present form, 
there were rising, in the East and West, mountain systems 
and surrounding plateaus that were to have a great influ- 
ence upon our climate, and therefore upon our crops, 
our animals, and ourselves. Being very old and much 




Fig. 4. 

A view in the Dismal Swamp of Virginia. Compare 
Fig. 3 with this to see how different the trees are. 



6 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



worn down, the eastern mountains, called the Appala- 
chians, are neither very high nor very rugged, though 
they have some peaks which reach more than a mile above 
sea level. The western Cordilleras, being younger and 
therefore less worn, are more rugged, and have peaks ris- 
ing three miles and more above sea level. At the base 
of the Appalachians is a narrow plateau rarely more than 
fourteen hundred feet high ; but the Cordilleras tower 
above a broad plateau which is itself more than a mile in 
height, or as high as the mountain peaks of the east. 

Many of the rocks of the mountains and plateaus were 
deposited as sediment in the sea and afterward raised 

to their present- 
position by the 
m o vein ents of 
the earth's crust. 
In spite of their 
great elevation, 
the plateaus have 
remained level 
because the rock 
layers, or strata, 
of which they arc 
made, were kept 
in a horizontal 
or level position 
while being up- 
lifted. This can 
be seen where 
rivers have cut deep channels in the earth, showing the 
layers of rock to be nearly as level as when they were a 
part of the ocean floor (Fig. 6). 




Fig. 6. 

This valley, known as the Colorado Canyon, has 
heen cut to a depth of over a mile in the rock 
strata of the Colorado plateau. Can you see the 
horizontal strata? 




Fold-out 
Placeholder 



This fdid-out Is being digitized, and will be inserted at 

future date. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



On the other hand, the wrinkling of the earth's crust 
has in some places broken and folded the rock layers, and 
formed lofty mountain ranges in which the strata have been 
tilted and upturned, instead of remaining level (Fig. 7). 



A part of the 
height of moun- 
tains is due to 
the fact that 
they rest upon 
a platform of 
tablelands about 
them. Therefore 
a mountain crest 
two miles above 
sea level may 
really rise less 
than a mile above 
the plateau at its 
base. 

Mountains are 
not nearly so 
high as they 




Fig. 7. 

Tilted layers iu the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 
They were deposited as horizontal beds in the sea, 
as those o.i the Colorado plateau were (Fig. 6) ; 
hut, during the mountain folding, they have been 
turned up on end, and then worn away and carved 
into irregular hills by the rains. 



would be if they had not been attacked for ages by the weather 
and the rivers. Not only have they been lowered by these 
means, but also greatly carved and sculptured, being cut into 
ridges and peaks, and crossed by deep canyons which the rivers 
have dug out. 

After mountains have ceased rising, their peaks are lowered, 
and their valleys broadened, until they lose much of their 
mountain character, as in the case of the Appalachians. In- 
deed, they may even be reduced to a series of low hills, as in 
southern New England, which is really an ancient mountain 
region now worn down to its very roots. 

The folding, breaking, and sculpturing of the mountain rocks 
have had an important effect upon mining. As you see from 



8 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Figure 8, these changes often bring to view valuable minerals 
which were formed ages ago and are now deeply buried in the 
strata. 

Some mineral deposits, like coal, were laid down in beds 
between other layers of rock (p. 4) ; but many valuable min- 
erals, such as gold, silver, and copper ores, were deposited in 
cracks of the mountain rock, forming veins. Into these cracks 




Fig. 8. 

A section in the earth, where the rocks are folded, to show how a bed of valu- 
able mineral, such as the black layer, may be brought to light by folding 
and river cutting, while elsewhere it is deeply buried. 

hot water, often heated by deeply buried masses of lava, has 
brought valuable metals and deposited them in veins. Iron 
ore also has been deposited by water in beds and veins, though 
not always by hot water. 

Volcanoes. — Hundreds of mountain peaks in the West, 
instead of being made in the manner just described, are 
volcanoes. These are built of molten rock forced to the 
surface from within the earth. Though no longer active, 
these peaks are known to be volcanoes because of their cone 
shape, the hollows or craters in their tops, and the lava and 
volcanic ash, or blown-up lava, of which they are made. 

Doubtless some of these volcanoes have recently erupted; 
indeed, one, Mt. St. Helens in Washington, is reported to have 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



9 



been in eruption about a half century ago. Another, near Mt. 
Shasta in California, poured forth lava a very short time ago. 
This is known because the lava flow dammed up a stream, 
forming a lake whose waters rose into the surrounding forest, 
and killed the trees ; but the trees still stand in the lake, not 
having had time to decay. 

Hundreds of thousands of square miles of this western 
country are covered by lava flows. The soil produced by decay 
of the lava is often extremely fertile, and that is one of the 
chief reasons why the central part of the state of Washington, 
which is largely covered with it, has become noted for its fruit 
and wheat. There the lava flowed out from great cracks or 




Fig. 9. 

Mt. Shasta, California, one of the great volcanic cones of the West, 14,380 
feet high, and made entirely of lava and volcanic ash. A smaller cone is 
seen on the right. 

fissures and flooded immense areas of country. The area of 
the lava flows in tile Columbia and Snake river valleys is more 
than twenty-five times as great as that of Massachusetts. 



The Trough between the Two Mountain Systems. — 
From the mountain systems of the East and West, the 
land slopes gently toward the Mississippi River, which 
flows in the trough made by the uplift of the two sides of 



10 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

the continent. Measure the width of this trough on the 
map of the United States (Fig. 08, p. 123). 

This extensive lowland has had a long history, like the 
mountains. In the early ages so much of it was under 
water that a great sea extended from where the Gulf of 
Mexico now lies to the Arctic Ocean. In the rock layers 
are found many remains, or fossils, of shells, corals, and 
fish that lived in the sea of this ancient time. Upon dying 



_^. ~ - "' 1 



Fig. 10. 

Section across the United States, to show the two highlands and the great 
trough between. A, Appalachians; M, Mississippi ; R, Rocky Mountains. 

and dropping to the bottom, these animals were entombed 
in the beds which have since been hardened to rock. 

After a time most of this sea bottom was raised to 
form dry land, although a part of it — from the Gulf 
of Mexico to southern Illinois — remained under water 
for a long time afterward. Into this sea the Missis- 
sippi discharged its floods and dropped its load of soil, 
swept from the distant fields and mountains. As time 
went on, the river filled up the sea and formed flood 
plains, which — raised by a slight uplift — are among the 
most fertile lands of our country. And now the river 
seems bent on filling up the Gulf itself. 

Although the mountains and plateaus of our country 
are so far away from the lowlands, they have a great influ- 
ence upon them. The Mississippi Valley, in all but its 
southern part, is in a belt of the earth where most of the 
winds blow from the west. Since these winds blow from 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 11 

the Pacific Ocean, they are at first damp ; but upon reach- 
ing the western highlands, they are compelled to drop 
much of their moisture, and then they pass on into the 
Mississippi Valley as dry winds. This causes the plains 
and plateaus of the northwest to be dry or arid. The 
eastern and southern portions of the valley have a more 
humid climate. The reasons for this are that this region 
is so near the Gulf and the Atlantic, and is separated from 
the latter by such low mountains, that damp ocean winds 
are able to reach it. 

In spite of the fact that most of the West is arid, 
many rivers have their sources among the high moun- 
tains. Notice, for instance, how many tributaries of the 
Mississippi rise among the mountain ranges (Map, Fig. 
97, opposite p. 124). This water carries sediment for 
hundreds of miles, building it into flood plains and deltas. 
From this it is evident that the highlands not only sup- 
ply the Mississippi with much of its water, but also with 
some of the soil which has made such fertile farm land. 

The direction in which the ranges extend is a matter of great 
importance, also. Since the mountains run north and south, 
the warm south winds find no highlands to check their north- 
ward course. Therefore, they are able to carry warmth and 
moisture a great distance, even far into the northern part of 
the United States. In consequence, the Mississippi Valley is 
one of the largest and finest farming sections in the world, 
producing a great variety of crops. Where the summers are 
shortest, though still warm, excellent wheat is raised ; farther- 
south, corn is the principal crop; and in the southern part, 
where the summers are longest and hottest, tobacco, cotton, 
sugar-cane, and rice are grown. 

How different it would be if a great mountain system 
extended east and west across the continent ! The warm sum- 



12 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



nier winds could not, then, carry their warm th and moisture so 
far north ; neither could the north winds, which are cool in 
summer and cold in winter, reach so far south. The north 
winds are very important; they moderate the heat of summer 
and bring cool weather in winter. Sometimes they do damage 
in winter by causing destructive frosts, even as far south as 
Florida. Then the orange and lemon trees suffer greatly. Bat 
they also do good, for too much heat takes away the vigor of 
the people, while cool air makes them more active. 

The Great Ice Age. — Long after the coal beds were 
formed and the great highlands and valleys were built, 




Fig. 11. 

A picture of the Cornell glacier in Greenland. It is a great waste of ice, 
slowly moving down from the interior to the coast and ending in the sea, 
where icebergs break off and float away. Some of these may be seen in 
the picture (see also Fig. 12) . 

another very important event happened in the preparation 
of this continent for our home. That was the forma- 
tion of a great ice sheet, or glacier, which covered a large 
part of northern North America. Ibis glacier had much 
to do with making the lakes, waterfalls, and even the soil 
itself, in that section. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



13 




An ice sheet similar to that one may still be seen in 
Greenland (Figs. 11 and 14). Excepting along the very- 
coast, this immense island is buried beneath a sheet of ice 
which has an area about ten times as great as that of New 
York State. 

The Greenland glacier is made of snow which has fallen on 
the high interior in such immense quantities that the pressure 
upon the under 
part has changed 
it to ice, as press- 
ure from your 
hands will change 
a snowball to ice. 
As the snow col- 
lects and becomes 
ice, it spreads out, 
or floivs, from the 
interior toward 
the coast, much 
as a piece of wax 
may be made to 
flow if a weight is placed upon it. Moving toward the sea, 
the glacier drags away the soil, tears off fragments of the rock, 
and scours the rock layers, as if it were a great sand paper. 
The movement is very slow, yet the ice is always pushing 
onward to the sea, where enormous icebergs are continually 
breaking off and floating away (Figs. 11 and 12). 

The glacier which formerly extended over a part of this 
continent was likewise made of snow. It covered most 
of northeastern America, reaching as far south as New 
York City and the Ohio River in the East, but not so far 
south in the West (Fig. 1.3). Being over a mile deep in 
its thickest part, and in consequence very heavy, the 
glacier swept away the soil which had previously been 



Fig. 12. 

An iceberg from the Greenland glacier, slowly float- 
ing southward, where it gradually melts away 
in the warmer water and air. 



14 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



i~~:^& 




Fig. 13. 

Model showing the distance which the Great Ice Sheet reached in United States. 
(Model made hy E. E. Howell, Washington, D.C.) 

made. Not only this, but, by the help of rock fragments 
held fast in its bottom, it scraped off pieces of the solid 

rock and car- 
ried them for- 
ward also. 



Although the 
glacier was al- 
ways pushing 
southward into 
our country, its 
southern end 
was continually 
melting away, 
owing to the 
warmer climate 




Fig. 14. 

The ice front of a part of Cornell glacier (Fig. 11), with 
moraine at its base, where rock fragments fall from 
the melting glacier. The dark lower part of the 
glacier is rilled with pieces of rock. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 15 

which it met. At times the movement was just rapid enough 
to supply the waste due to this melting, so that the edge re- 
mained in nearly the same position for years. All this time 
the sand, gravel, and rock, which had been carried along in the 
ice, were being piled up along the line where the glacier melted, 
forming a great mass called a moraine (Figs. 14 and 15). The 
moraine hills, or hummocks, of gravel and clay were often 
built to a heiarht of one or two hundred feet. 




Fig. 15. 
Some hummocks in a moraine formed by the Great Glacier near Ithaca, N.Y. 

After standing for a while and building a moraine in one 
place, the glacier front often advanced to the south, or melted 
away toward the north, building up other irregular piles of 
moraine hummocks. 

During the thousands of years that the glacier lasted, it 
carried millions of tons of clay and rock from one place 
to another and built many low hills. As it slipped over 
the surface, it ground boulders and pebbles together and 
rubbed them against the solid rock, scratching and groov- 
ing it (Fig. 16). Scratches thus made may still be seen 
pointing northward, toward the place from which the gla- 
cier moved. This work of rasping, digging, carrying, and 
dumping done by the glacier has led to its being called a 
combined file, plough, and dump cart of immense size. 




Fig. 16 



16 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Finally, after thousands of years, the great ice sheet melted 
away. No one is able to say why it came or why it went 

away ; but that it was here 
and did the work de- 
scribed, all who have stud- 
ied the subject are fully 
convinced. 

It was the glacier 
which caused the great 
number of lakes in the 

Scratches on a ^^H - / 

rock made by ^^Kj B northeastern part of 

the glacier in North America. Min- 

passing over it. .._^.-- 

nesota alone is said to 
have ten thousand, and in New- England there are also 
thousands (Fig. 17 and Fig. 100, p. 124) ; but most of the 
states outside of the glacial region have extremely few. 

The manner in which these lakes were formed is as 
follows : The load of clay and boulders, or drift, as it is 
called, was dumped irregularly over the land. It some- 
times tilled in valleys and built up clams, behind which 
ponds and lakes collected. The glacier also formed lake 
basins by digging, or ploughing, directly into the rock. 
Even the Great Lakes did not exist before the glacier 
came ; their basins occupy broad river valleys which have 
been blocked by dams of drift and deepened by the plough- 
ing of the Great Ice Sheet. 

The glacier also had an important influence upon our 
manufacturing. Its load of rock fragments often filled 
parts of valleys so that, after the ice was gone, the streams 
were compelled to seek new courses. These courses often 
lay clown steep slopes or across buried ledges, over which 
the water tumbled in a succession of rapids and falls. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



17 



Even the great cataract of Niagara was caused in this 
way, and the same is true of many of the falls and rapids 
of hilly New England and New York. The many lakes 
act as storehouses to keep the noisy falls and rapids well 
supplied with water. For these reasons New England 
and New York have such abundant water-power that they 
early grew to be the greatest manufacturing centres of the 
Union. In sections of the country not reached by the 
glacier, rapids and falls are much less common. Did 
the glacier reach where you live? 




Fig. 17. 

A New England lake formed by a dam of drift left by the glacier. It is very 
irregular because the -wate'r behind the dam has risen into many valleys, 
leaving only the hilltops above the surface. 



A third important influence of the glacier was upon the 
soil. In most other parts of the country the soil has been 
made by the decay of rock (see First Book, p. 2) ; but in 
the glacial region the decayed rock was swept away and 
replaced by drift brought by the glacier. This was made 
by the grinding of rocks together, much as flour is made 
by grinding wheat ; in fact, glacial soil is sometimes called 
rock flour. As the glacier scraped along, it ground an 



18 



A GENERAL STUJJY OF NORTH AMERICA 




enormous quantity of rock to bits, so that when it melted, 
a layer of drift (Fig. 18) was left, in some places reaching 

a depth of several hun- 
dred feet. Most of 
the clays from which 
bricks are made in 
the North were also 
brought by the gla cier . 

With the melting of 
the glacier, much water 
was produced. This 
washed out and carried 
off a great deal of clay, 
in some places leav- 
ing extensive sand and 
gravel plains, where the 
soil is not very fertile. 
Many of the cities of 

New England are built upon these level sand plains. Into the 

sand beds the rain water readily soaks, and then slowly oozes 

out, thus keeping the streams supplied with water. This makes 

the sand plains 

great reservoirs 

of water, much as 

lakes are. 

The bits of 

ground - up rock 

left by the glacier 

have an impor- 
tant effect upon 

the soil. Since 

these fragments 

were gathered up 

from many places, and from many different kinds of rock, 

they sometimes cause a fertile soil in places where the decay 



Fig. 18. 

Glacial soil resting on the bed rock in Cen- 
tral New York. 




Fig. 19. 

A field on Cape Ann, Mass., where the glacier left 
many large boulders. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 19 

of the rocks would have naturally caused a sterile soil. The 
constant rusting or decaying of these rock fragments supplies 
the soil with plant food ; and for this reason the glacial soils 
are usually fertile year after year. But, on the other hand, in 
some places the glacier failed to grind the rock into tiny bits, 
leaving pebbles and even large boulders to cover the ground 
and prove a great nuisance to the farmer (Fig. 19). 

The Coast Line. — In studying about the Mississippi 
Valley and the formation of coal, we have seen that the 
land and sea bottom are not fixed, but that they often 
slowly rise or sink. 

Such changes in the land level are even now in progress in 
many places, though so slowly that it requires years, and even 
centuries, to notice them. For instance, along the coast of 
New Jersey the land is sinking at the rate of about two feet a 
century, while the land around Hudson Bay is rising. 

Some of the recent changes in the level of the land 
have had an important effect upon the coast line. For 
example, the reason we find so many islands and penin- 
sulas along the northeastern coast (Fig. 95) is that this 
section has been lowered several hundred feet. By this 
means the ocean water has been allowed to enter the val- 
leys, while the higher land between them extends above 
the water in the form of peninsulas, capes, and islands. 

The peninsulas of Labrador and Nova Scotia, and the hun- 
dreds of islands along the northeastern coast, including New- 
foundland, owe their existence to this sinking. The irregular 
Pacific coast from Puget Sound northward (Fig. 20) was pro- 
duced in the same way. 

By this sinking of the land many good harbors were 
made, the best ones being where rivers enter the sea. 



20 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

When the land was higher, the streams carved out broad 
valleys, into which, when the land sank, the sea water 
entered, forming bays and harbors. That is the way the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence was formed ; also New York, Dela- 
ware, Chesapeake, and San Francisco bays, as well as the 
many excellent harbors of the East. What rivers carved 
out the bays mentioned '? (See maps, Figs. 95, 07, and 121.) 
One reason for so few good harbors along the coast of 
the Southern States is that the land in this section has 
been rising out of the sea. Just off the coast is a broad 



Fig. 20. 

A picture of the irregular coast of Southern Alaska, near Sitka, where the 
sinking of the land has drowned the valleys, leaving only the hilltops pro- 
jecting above the sea. 

ocean-bottom plain where the water is shallow (Figs. 96, 
122, and 154), while still farther out, the bottom slopes 
rapidly and the ocean becomes very deep. Upon this sea- 
bottom plain, called the continental shelf, layers of rock 
bits, or sediment, are being deposited, much as layers of 
rock were formed on the sea bottom during the coal 
period. If the continental shelf should be raised it would 
form a great level plain. 

That part of the Southern States which borders the Gulf 
and the ocean was once a portion of this ocean-bottom 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



21 




Fig. 21. 

A part of the raised sea bottom which forms the level 

plain of Florida. 



plain ; but it has been raised until it is now a low, fertile 
plain (Fig. 21). Since the continental shelf is so level, 
when a part of it was lifted above the water there were 
few places for deep inlets, bays, and harbors. After 
being raised, 
the coast was 
slightly low- 
ered ; but the 
b a y s thus 
f o r m e d are 
shallow and 
the harbors 
poor. 

The level 
plain of the 

Florida peninsula is also a sea bottom that has been lifted above 
the. ocean. Many of the lakes and swamps which abound in 
that region are believed to be due to the shallow basins built 
by the irregular deposit of sediment on the old sea floor. 

Size, Shape, and Position. — North America is fourth in 
size among the six continents of the earth. By reference 
to page -115, find which are larger and which smaller. 

After being changed in shape during millions of years, 
owing to the rising and sinking of the land, it at present 
has the form of a triangle with the broadest portion in the 
north. Draw the triangle. Compare its shape with that 
of South America and Africa (Fig. 359). The northern 
part is so wide that Alaska extends to within fifty miles of 
Asia ; but Labrador is over two thousand miles away from 
Europe. The distance from Alaska to Asia is so short 
that the early ancestors of our Indians and Eskimos proba- 
bly first reached North America by crossing over from 



22 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Asia. On account of the greater distance across the 
Atlantic, for a long time Europeans did not know that 
North America existed ; but it is certain that the Norse- 
men from Norway visited our shores nearly five hundred 
years before Columbus discovered the continent. 

Those portions of North America which are nearest to 
Asia and Europe are so cold that few people live there. 
Farther south, where most of the inhabitants live, the 
continents are spread farther apart, as you will see by 
examining a globe. The broad Atlantic must be crossed 
in passing from Europe to America; this fact helps to 
explain why the Spanish colonies were able to win their 
independence from Spain, and the United States from 
England. The distance across the. sea was too great to 
send large armies and supplies for them. 

This separation of Europe from America has also helped 
in the development of our industries. At first, the colo- 
nists brought even bricks, doors, and timber from Europe ; 
but although the ocean is an excellent highway, it is 
expensive to send goods such long distances. Therefore 
the settlers soon learned to raise and make most of the 
articles that they needed for food, clothing, and shelter. 

Nevertheless, the ocean is such an excellent highway 
that ships are able to sail across it in every direction and 
bring what we really need, or carry back such products as 
cotton and tobacco, which Europeans desire. Ships have 
also brought to us the hundreds of thousands of English, 
Irish, Germans, French, Swedes, and others who have set- 
tled and developed our country, and whose descendants are 
its citizens. Since Europe is our mother land, it has been, 
and is still, very important to keep in close touch with the 
various nations of that continent. This has been made 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 23 

possible partly by the shortness of the journey, now that 
vessels are moved by steam, and partly by the excellent 
harbors caused by the sinking of our coast. 

The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic (see a 
globe), and therefore much more difficult to cross. Although 
the shores of Asia which face North America are densely set- 
tled, until recently we have not needed to have much commerce 
with the inhabitants of that continent because they were not 
very progressive. Now, however, the Japanese have adopted 
the methods of modern civilization, and we have come into 
control of the Philippine Islands, so that many of our ships 
cross the Pacific. 

South America is also easily reached by water, and there 
is much trade with the various countries of that continent. 
Although South America is joined to North America by the 
narrow Isthmus of Panama, there is at present no railway 
connecting the two continents, though one is being planned. 
This isthmus is a great barrier to ocean commerce between 
eastern and western United States and between the Eastern 
States and Asia. It is very narrow, and in places only two 
or three hundred feet high; yet it causes ships to travel thou- 
sands of miles around South America. A railway crosses it, and 
ship canals, one across the isthmus and another farther north, 
are planned. State clearly of what advantage these will be. 

Relation of Man to Earth. — So we see that our conti- 
nent, as we know it, has not been here from the begin- 
ning ; instead of that, millions of years have been required 
to prepare it for us. Ocean bottoms have been lifted into 
mountains, plateaus, and valleys ; coal beds, building stones, 
and valuable minerals have been formed ; a mighty glacier 
has swept over the country, grinding rock into powder 
and causing lakes, water-routes, falls, and rapids ; and the 
coast has been sinking here and rising there, producing 
fine harbors in some places and greatly increasing the 



24 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

extent of the plains in others. Our very position, sepa- 
rated by the ocean from the Old World, and yet enabling 
us to reach it when it is necessary, is an advantage. 

But our comfort and prosperity do not depend upon 
the land alone : the sun, the air, and the ocean are also 
of great value to us. The sun supplies our heat; but it 
is warmer in summer than it is in winter. The air, which 
•envelops the earth, is heated by the sun's rays, and moves 
about, forming winds. These bring us vapor from the 
ocean, and this vapor falls to the earth in the form of 
rain and snow. The water of the ocean not only fur- 
nishes vapor for rain ; it is also disturbed by waves and 
tides which do important work along the coast, and by 
warm and cold currents, which affect the climate even 
hundreds of miles away. All these matters need to be 
studied before we can fully appreciate how beautifully the 
world is adapted to our needs. 

Review Questions. — (1) What was the condition of North 
America in early times? (2) What is coal made from? Tell 
how it was formed, (o) What proofs are there of this formation? 
(4) What is peat? (5) Name and locate our two chief mountain 
systems. (6) How high are the plateaus at the base of each ? (7) Ex- 
plain why the plateaus are so level in spite of their height. (8) How 
have the mountains been made? (9) Explain what effect this has 
had upon mining. (10) Tell about the volcanoes of the West. 

(11) Why is the Mississippi Valley called a trough? (12) What 
was its condition in early times? (13) How was the interior sea 
finally changed to dry land? (1-1) Mention some ways in which the 
mountains control the Mississippi Valley. (15) What differences 
would follow if the ranges extended east and west? 

(16) Describe the Greenland glacier. (17) How far did the great 
American ice sheet reach? How deep was it? (18) What are 
moraines? (19) What do the scratches on the rocks tell us about 
the glacier? (20) Why is a glacier compared to a plough? A file? 
A dump cart? (21) In what ways did the glacier cause lakes? 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 25 

(22) Falls and rapids? (23) Soil? (24) What effect has the gla- 
cial soil upon farming? (25) Tell the whole story of the glacier. 

(26) Why are there so many islands, peninsulas, hays, and harbors 
in the northeast ? (27) Name some of them. (28) How have some 
of our largest bays been made? Name them. (29) Why are there 
so few harbors on our southern coast ? (30) What is the cause of the 
southern plains? (31) What is the continental shelf? (32) How 
does North America compare in size with the other continents? 
(33) How far is the mainland from Asia and Europe ? (31) Show 
how our position is a favorable one. (35) What is the influence of 
the Isthmus of Panama? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a collection of different kinds of coal. 
(2) Examine some pieces of soft coal closely to see if you can discover 
plant remains. (3) Obtain some peat. (1) Learn what you can 
about coal mining. (5) AVhat is the elevation of the land at your 
home? (6) Examine layers of rock in your neighborhood to see if 
they are horizontal or tilted. See if they contain fossils. (7) Make a 
drawing similar to Figure 10. (S) Why are volcanoes shaped like 
a cone? Why is there a crater in the middle? (9) Make a model of a 
volcano out of sand or clay. (10) What becomes of the Greenland 
icebergs? (11) Make a map showing the extent of the American 
glacier. (12) What signs of the glacier, if any, can you find in your 
neighborhood? (13) Examine the clay in a brickyard. (14) Pound 
a pebble to bits and plant beans in it to see if they will grow as well 
in that as in soil. (15) Name several great cities that have grown up 
about our Northern harbors. Name some in the South. (1(3) Draw 
an outline map of the northeastern coast, and another of the southern 
coast, to see how they differ. (17) Collect pictures of volcanoes, gla- 
ciers, mountains, and plateaus. (18) With the aid of sand in a basin 
make a model of an irregular land, then pour in water to show how it 
enters to form bays, islands, etc. (19) How many days long is the 
voyage, on a fast steamer, from New York to Liverpool? How many 
miles an hour does the steamer go? How many miles does that make 
the distance ? (20) How long is the journey from San Francisco 
to Manila? (21) From New York to Manila by going eastward? 
Through what waters would one pass on such a voyage ? (22) What 
would be the distance from New York to Manila by sailing around 
South America? How much shorter would it be if the ship could go 
through a canal across the isthmus? 

For References to Books and Articles, see page 438. 



II. SUMMER AND WINTER 




The Sun and its Position. — The earth is a planet, one 
of the members of the solar system, all of which revolve 

around the great central 
body, the sun. Although 
millions of miles away, 
the sun supplies us with 
light and heat, for it is 
a glowing hot sphere 
hundreds of times larger 
than the earth (Fig. 22). 
The rays from the sun 
pass outward in all direc- 
tions, and some of them 
fall upon the earth (Fig. 
23), causing the light 
and heat which are of so 
much importance to us. 

Light and heat vary 
greatly in different 
places. If we could spend 
a summer north of the Arctic Circle with the Eskimos 
(Fig. 24), we would find weeks of constant day, 1 and be 
able to see at midnight as well as at midday. The sun 
reaches the highest point on the longest day, June 21st, 
but it is even then low in the heavens (Fig. 32). Day 

1 Exactly at the north pole there are six months of day and six months 
of night. 

26 






Fig. 22. 

Relative size of earth and sun. This shows 
how very large the sun is. Notice that 
the distance from the centre of the sun 
to its outside is much greater than the 
distance from the earth to the moon, 
which is 240,000 miles from us. 



SUMMER AND WINTER 



27 




Fig. 23. 

Notice that of all the rays passing outward from 
the sun only a very small part reach the earth, 
the rest passing off into space. 



after day it circles around the heavens near the horizon, 

reaching nearer the horizon at night than during the day. 
Later in the 

summer, the sun 

begins to set and 

the days to grow 

rapidly shorter. 

Finally the sun 

disappears, even at 

noon, though for 

several weeks 

there is twilight in 

the middle of the 

day. Soon, how- 
ever, there is no twilight, and darkness prevails throughout 

the whole twen- 
ty - four hours, 
accompanied by 
bitter cold. 

During the win- 
ter night the stars 
and moon furnish 
a dim light by the 
aid of which the 
Eskimos are able 
to hunt the seal and 
polar bear which 
supply them Avith 
food. On these 
hunts they dress 
in warm furs and 
travel over the frozen sea on sledges drawn by wolf-like dogs. 
In the south frigid zone, the same changes in the sun's posi- 
tion occur, thou sch there the sun is highest on December 21st. 




Fig. 24. 
Some of the Eskimos whose homes are in the frigid 
north. The mothers carry the bahies in fur 
hoods on their hacks. 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



This causes the long summer day to come there while the north 
frigid zone is wrapped in the darkness of the long winter night. 

Now let us fancy ourselves in the torrid zone. There 
the sun reappears every morning- in the year ; and every 

noon it is almost directly 
overhead, while for a part 
of the year it is exactly 
overhead. No snow and 
ice are seen, and the cli- 
mate is so warm, even dur- 
ing the winter, that the 
inhabitants wear as few 
clothes as possible. In- 
deed, some savages wear 
almost none (Fig. 25). 

While the noonday shad- 
ows in the north temperate 
and north frigid zones al- 
ways fall toward the north, 
and in the southern zones 
toward the south, in the 
torrid zone they fall north- 
ward during one part of 
the year and south Avard during another part. Of course at the 
time when the sun is directly overhead they do not extend in 
either of these directions. 

These different positions of the sun, with the resulting 
changes in the length of the days and in the seasons, are 
among the most important facts about our home, for they 
compel great changes in our food, clothing, and habits. 
What differences, from season to season, are there in the 
position of the sun and the length of the day where you 




Fig. 25. 

Savages whose homes are in the tropical 
zone. Contrast their dress with that 
of the Eskimos (Fig. 24). 



SUMMER AND WINTER 29 

live ? Two causes work together to produce these 
changes, as we shall now see. 

Inclination of the Earth's Axis. — One cause for change 
of seasons is the position that the earth holds with ref- 
erence to the sun. It is easy to see that if the earth 
always stood before the sun, as shown in Figure 33, page 
35, the sun's rays would reach from pole to pole, lighting- 
one half of the globe at a time and leaving the other half 
in darkness. As the earth made its daily rotation, all 
places upon it would have day and night every twenty- 
four hours, excepting at the very poles, where the sun 
would always be seen on the horizon. 

But if the earth's axis were tipped or inclined, so that 
the north pole was always turned toward the sun, as in 
Figure 31, the conditions would be very different. Then, 
as the earth rotated, the sun's raj^s would not only reach 
the north pole, but extend beyond it, while they would 
not reach the south pole at all. 

In that case, if one stayed a year in the north frigid zone, the 
sun would be in sight all the time, while if he stayed a year at 
the south pole he would not see it at any time. Since the sun 
furnishes heat as well as light, it would always be summer in 
the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern. 

If the earth's axis were tipped so that the south instead of 
the north pole were the one always turned toward the sun (Fig. 
34), the opposite condition would prevail in each hemisphere. 
That is, it would be perpetual night at the north pole and con- 
stant winter where we live ; but perpetual summer would pre- 
vail in the south temperate zone, and the south pole would have 
constant sunlight. 

The fact is, that the earth's axis is alivays inclined, as in 
the figures ; but, as we well know, our summer does not 



30 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

last all the time, nor do we have perpetual winter. We 
also know that both the north and south poles are in 
darkness a part of the year, and lighted for the remainder 
of the year. 

Revolution of the Earth around the Sun. — This leads 
us to the second cause for our seasons. Although the 
earth's axis is always inclined in the same direction, the 
earth does not always remain on the same side of the sun. 
Therefore it does not have the same pole always turned 
toward the sunlight ; for, in addition to its rotation, the 
earth has another movement, that of travelling, or revolv- 
ing, around the sun (Fig. 27). 

The sun is about ninety-three million miles from us — a 
distance so great that no one can fully realize it ; but the 
earth is moving at such a tremendous rate that it com- 
pletes one journey around the sun, or one revolution, in 
almost exactly 365 days, or one year. This explains 
how we get our year. 

In its revolution the earth is moving at the rate of more 
than one and a half million miles per day. What speed ! And 
at the same time it is whirling or rotating rapidly on its axis, 
as already explained (see First Book, p. 115). 

The Attraction of Gravitation. — As in the case of the earth's 
rotation, one might ask (First Book, p. 116), Why are we not 
swept from the earth by the wind ? The answer, as before, is 
that the air, and everything else upon the earth, is drawn 
toward it and held in place by the force of gravity, so that all 
travel together in the journey around the sun. 

If the earth is revolving at such a fearful speed, why does 
not the earth itself fly away into space ? As a stone swinging- 
round at the end of a string flies off when the string breaks, so 
it might seem that the earth would fly away, since there appears 
to be nothing holding it to the sun. 



SUMMER AND WINTER 



31 



But there is something to hold it. It is not a string nor a 
rope, to be sure, but something far stronger. The sun is very 
much (larger than the earth, in fact, over a hundred times as 
large, and attracts the earth to it, as the force of gravity at- 
tracts men and houses to the earth. This attraction of gravita- 
tion, which the sun exerts upon the earth, is what prevents 
the latter from flying far off into space ; it holds the earth as 
firmly as the string holds the stone. 




Fig. 26. 

Notice that the axis here is inclined in the same direction in each case, but that 
t the light reaches different places on the apple in each of the three positions. 

Effect of Inclination and Revolution. — Since the earth's 
axis- is always inclined in one position, the revolution 
causes first one pole to be turned toward the sun, and 
then the other. You can understand how this must be if 
you run a needle or slender stick through an apple, as in 
Figure 26, and carry it around a lamp which represents 
the sun. In doing this be sure always to keep the stick, 



32 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTE AMERICA 



which represents the earth's axis, tilted in the same direc- 
tion. As you go, the part of the apple turned toward the 
lamp constantly changes. The inclination of the axis 
does not change ; but, nevertheless, first one end, or pole 
of the stick, faces the light, then the other. 

So it is with the earth; as it revolves around the sun, 
always with its axis inclined in the same way (Fig. 27), 
it is constantly reaching new places in its path of revolu- 




SBf?*" 



Fig. 27. 



To show how the earth appears as it journeys around the sun. In order to 
represent this clearly, it has been necessary to make the earth appear very 
much larger than it really is. Compare the size of the earth and sun here 
with that in Figure 22, where their relative size is shown. 



tion, now with the northern hemisphere facing the sun 
(June, Fig. 27), and the southern hemisphere turned away 
from it, then, later, with the conditions just reversed. 

Summer and Winter. — These changes in the position of 
the earth with reference to the sun exert an immense 
influence upon the life on the globe. They cause us, 
whose homes are in the temperate zone, to struggle at one 
season to keep cool and at another to keep warm ; while 



SUMMER AND WINTER 



33 



for weeks, and even months at a time, they force the Eski- 
mos to hunt their food in darkness and in the midst of the 
most intense cold (p. 27). 

To understand why it is cold in winter, we must remember 
that our light and heat are received from the sun, and that it 



SUN'S RAYS 
REACHING EARTH 
"AT NOON FROM 
NEARLY ABOVE. 



SUN'S RAYS REACHING EARTH IN 

AFTERNOON WHEN SUN IS LOW IN 

HEAVENS. 




SURFACE OF THE EARTH 



Fig. 28. 

Two bundles of rays, each a half inch wide (A-B and E-F) ; hut since one 
set comes from nearly overhead, while the other set comes at a slant, 
the first fall upon a smaller surface than the second. If you measure C-D, 
you will find it half as long as G-H. That is, the same number of rays 
coming at a slant cover twice as much ground as those from overhead. 

makes a great difference how the sun's rays reach us. Morn- 
ing and evening are cooler than midday chiefly because at the 
former time the sun's 
rays fall at a greater 
slant (Kg. 28) ; and for 
the same reason winter 
is colder than summer. 

You have, of course, 
noticed that in midwin- 
ter the sun rises and sets 
far to the south of the 
true east and west, and 
that even at noon it is 

low in the heavens ; but FlG - 29- 

in midsummer it rises A diagram showing that the sun's rays near 

and qprs mnnh fnirrhpr to the poles reach the earth iu a more slant " 

ana sets mucn lurtnei to iDg way> and after passing through more 

the north, and at noon is air, than at the equator. 




. -' ~ , — -EOtl-A-TO Ft - - 



34 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



6UN'S RAYS IN 



SUN'S RAYS I N 
EARLY MORNING 



far higher in the heavens. When the sun is so low, the rays 
reach the earth in a slanting way, so that fewer of them fall 
upon a given area of ground than when they come from nearly 

overhead (Fig. 28). 

There is a great deal of dust 
floating about in the air, as 
may easily be seen when a beam 
of sunlight enters a dark room. 
This interferes with the pas- 
sage of the rays, much as mud- 
dy water does; hence, when 
the sun is low and its rays pass 
through a great thickness of 
dusty air (Fig. 30), many of 
them are prevented from reach- 
ing the earth. In large cities 
FlG - 30 - where there is much smoke, 

To show that the sun's rays pass and on hazy days when there is 

through more air when the sun is h dugt ^ th r[ ^ gun _ 

low in the heavens than when it 7 

is high. Explain the figure. light is greatly interfered with. 




The Length of Day and Night. — The northern hemi- 
sphere faces the sun most fully on the 21st of June, as 
shown in Fig. 31. At noon of that day the sun is directly 
over the heads of the 
people who live in 
Cuba, southern Mex- 
ico, and other places 
on the Tropic of Can- 
cer. 

At that time there 
is sunlight through- FlGg 31 . 

OUt the entire twenty- Position of the earth June 21. Notice the 

four hours in all the vertical ray (middle heavy line) over the 

Tropic of Cancer. The shaded portion of 
region enclosed by the hall represents night. 




SUMMER AND WINTER 



35 



the Arctic Circle. Find this upon a globe, and note how 
much of Greenland and Alaska it includes. 

The 21st of June, when the midnight sun shines on all 
parts of the north 
frigid zone, is our 
longest day ; but 
farther south the 
days grow short- 
er until the Ant- 
arctic Circle is 
reached. There, 
on June 21, the 
sun just appears 
on the horizon 




Fig. 32. 

The sun at midnight of June 21, at North Cape, 
Norway. 



at noon, while nearer the south pole it is dark as night 
throughout the entire twenty-four hours. 

After the 21st of June, the earth's further revolution 
causes the north pole to begin to turn away from the 

sun and the south 



pole to turn toward 
it. The sun then ap- 
pears to be moving 
southward; but, as 
in the case of sunrise 
and sunset, we know 
that 1 it is not the sun, 
but the earth, that is 
moving. 

On the 22d of September, the sun's rays are vertical at 
the equator, and its light just reaches the poles (Fig. 33). 
Now that the days are shorter than the nights, our sum- 
mer is over. 




Fig. 33. 
Position of the earth September 22. 



36 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 34. 
Position of the earth December 21. 



By the 21st of December, the sun's rays are vertical 
at the Tropic of Capricorn (Fig. 34), and they reach far 

beyond the south pole, 
lighting and warming 
all the south frigid zone 
throughout the entire 
twenty-four hours. 
Then the north frigid 
zone is left in dark- 
ness. At " that date, 
which is the beginning 
of winter with us and 
of summer in the southern hemisphere, the sun appears 
farthest south, and we have our shortest day. This is also 
the day when the sun's rays reach us at the greatest slant. 
As the earth revolves farther, the vertical rays of the 
sun fall farther north, reaching the equator again on 
March 21, when spring begins (Fig. 35). The 22d of 
September and the 21st of March are called the equi- 
noxes (a word mean- 
ing equal nights), 
because the days 
and nights are then 
equal in length. 

On June 21, the 
rays are once more 
vertical over the 
Tropic of Cancer, and 
thus a year has been 
completed. Every year the earth makes this revolution, 
producing our seasons and constantly changing the length 
of our days and nights. 




Fig. 35. 
Position of the earth March 21. 



SUMMER AND WINTER 37 

We see that these important changes are due to the inclina- 
tion of the earth's axis and to the revolution of the earth around 
the sun. Can you think what would be the result if the axis 
were inclined considerably more? Carry an apple around 
the lamp in this different position to see. What changes 
would then have to follow in our mode of living ? What if 
the axis were inclined less ? What if it required more than 
365 days for the earth to revolve around the sun ? What if 
considerably less ? 

The Zones. — It will be remembered from the First Book 
(p. 120) that the Tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic circles 
form the boundaries of the zones; and, from what has just 
been said, it is evident that it is the sun's position in the 
heavens that fixes these boundaries. What is the position of 
the sun at noon of June 21 at the northern boundary of the 
north temperate zone ? At the southern boundary ? What is 
its position on December 21 ? Answer the same questions 
for the south temperate zone. For the torrid zone. 

You will remember, of course, that there is nothing to mark 
the position of these boundaries, and that if a person should 
pass from one zone to another, he would find the change so 
gradual that he probably would not know when they were 
passed. Indeed, in some places, the climate is cooler within 
the torrid zone than it is outside that zone. Suggest some 
reasons why this is true. 

Questions. — (1) What changes in the sun's position are noticed 
where the Eskimos live ? What about the temperature ? (2) How 
do the changes in the south frigid zone differ from these? (3) What 
conditions prevail in the torrid zone? (4) What changes occur in 
the temperate zone where you live? (5) In the south temperate 
zone ? (6) In what direction do shadows fall in each of the zones ? 
(7) What would be the effect if the earth's axis were always in the 
position shown in Figure 33? (8) If the north pole were always turned 
toward the sun? (9) If the south pole were always turned toward 
it? (10) What is the real position of the earth's axis? (11) What 
other motion besides rotation has the earth? (12) What determines 
the length of a year ? (13) Why do we not notice the rapid move- 



38 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

ment of the earth? (14) What prevents the earth from flying off 
into space? (15) Show how the revolution of the earth causes first 
one pole, then the other, to be turned toward the sun. (16) What 
are the two causes for our changes of seasons? (17) Why are the 
sun's rays less intense when the sun is low in the heavens than when 
it is higher? (IS) On what day does the sun appear farthest north? 

(19) What does the Tropic of Cancer mark? The Arctic Circle? 

(20) When is the longest day at your home ? What is the posi- 
tion of the sun then? ("21) What about the southern hemisphere at 
that time? (22) What causes the sun to appear to move south 
after June 21? (23) When does our autumn begin? Our winter? 
(24) What does the Tropic of Capricorn mark? The Antarctic 
Circle? (25) When does our spring begin? Our summer? (26) What 
are the boundaries of the different zones? 

Suggestions. — (1) Show by a globe, or a ball, how the two move- 
ments of the earth, rotation and revolution, can be going on at the 
same time. (2) How cold is it in winter where you live ? How warm 
in summer? (3) How long is your day at present? Are the days 
growing longer or shorter? (-4) During which months do they grow 
longer? (5) During which months shorter? (6) Measure the length 
of the shadow of a tall pole at midday, and observe whether it is grow- 
ing longer or shorter each day. Why is it changing? (7) Make a 
drawing showing the five zones of the earth and the lines that 
bound them. (S) Xotice the stars, especially those of the Great 
Dipper, in the fall and again in the winter, to see whether they also 
appear to change their position. (9) The axis of the earth always 
points nearly toward the north star. Should you expect that star to 
move also ? Watch to see if it does. (10) What large stars can be 
seen in summer? In winter? Why different ones ? (11) Have you 
ever seen an eclipse of the moon? What is the cause of one? 
(12) Write a story telling how the change from summer to winter 
affects your plays, food, and clothing. (13) Write another story 
about some changes that you have noticed, in plants and animals, 
which have been caused by the change in season. (14) Find just 
how many degrees the axis of the earth is inclined. 

For References to Books axd Articles, see page 439. 



III. WIND AND RAIN 

Importance of Winds. — On some days the air seems too 
lazy to move ; it is calm, and will neither lift kites, turn 
windmills, nor push sailing vessels. We have learned 
(First Book, Chapter VIII) that the air obtains vapor by 
evaporation of water, and that it takes much vapor from 
the ocean. We have also learned that the winds may carry 
this vapor for hundreds of miles before it is condensed into 
raindrops or snowflakes. If the air did not move, but were 
always calm, as on some days, there could be no vapor 
brought to form rain : then the continents would be des- 
erts, and plants, animals, and men could not live upon them. 

Winds do blow most of the time in all parts of the 
world, and they carry with them vapor enough to water 
most of the land. It will be important, therefore, to 
study the winds and see what causes them, what their 
prevailing directions are, and what effect they have upon 
the climate of different parts of the world. 

The Sea Breeze. — The cause of winds is often well illus- 
trated near the seashore. For reasons that cannot be 
stated here, land warms much more quickly than water. 
That this is so, you can easily prove for yourself by plac- 
ing two pans upon a stove, one with a thin layer of dry 
earth, the other with the same quantity of water, and 
by noticing which becomes hot first. 

On a hot summer morning, the land along the seashore 
soon becomes warm, and the air above it is heated, as over 
a stove, so that it expands and grows light. That over 

39 



40 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



the water, remaining cool like the sea itself, pushes in 
toward the shore ; and thus a breeze from the sea, or a sea 
breeze, is created. In summer, such a breeze is frequently 
felt at the seashore and along the shores of large lakes, 
and it helps to make the temperature so agreeable that 
many people resort to those places during warm weather. 

At night time, the land cools more rapidly than the sea; and 
then the cool air from the land moves out toward the sea, form- 
ing a land breeze. 

The Monsoon Winds. — Similar winds blow from the ocean 
far into some of the continents. In Asia, for example (Fig. 36), 



Warm Land 





* SWarm S'e a / ^ 



Fig. 36. 

The monsoon -winds of India, the arrows showing their direction. Which fig- 
ure represents the summer season ? Why do the winds change with the 
seasons ? 



where they are best developed, the land becomes so warm in 
summer that steady winds, called summer monsoons, blow from 
the cool ocean toward the warm land. But during the winter 
the land is much colder than the ocean, and then the winter 
monsoon blows from the land toward the sea. It is the sum- 
mer monsoons blowing from the warm Pacific Ocean that cause 
the heavy summer rains in the Philippine Islands. 

These winds are so steady near the coast that the captains 



WIND AND RAIN 



41 



of sailing vessels bound for India count upon finding the wind 
blowing toward the coast in summer and away from it in 
winter. Summer monsoons also blow from the Gulf of Mexico 
over the plains of Texas and the lower Mississippi Valley, 
bringing vapor for rain. Notice on the map (Fig. 46, p. 50) 
that this is a very rainy region. 




Fig. 37. 
To illustrate how the air moves in a room heated by a stove. 

The Effect of a Stove. — The difference in temperature 
of sea and land is not the most important cause of winds. 
There are other differences in temperature that are much 
greater ; but in order to understand the winds that they 
produce, let us first consider the currents of air produced 
by a hot stove in a room (Fig. 37). 



42 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

As the air near the stove is warmed, it expands and 
grows lighter. Then the cooler air settles down and flows 
in, forcing upward that which has been warmed. The 
latter grows cooler in contact with the cool ceiling and 
walls of the room ; and, being made denser and heavier 
on that account, it again settles toward the floor and then 
once more moves toward the stove. In such a room you' 
can easily observe how much warmer the air is near the 
ceiling, where it has risen from the stove, than near the 
floor at some distance from the stove. 

Cause of the Trade Winds. — The greater winds of the 
earth may be compared to this movement of air in a room, 







SOUTH POLE 



f.g. as. 

Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the greater winds of the earth. 

the torrid zone, warmed by the sun's rays, taking the place 
of the stove. There, owing to the torrid heat, the atmos- 
phere becomes expanded and light. The heavier air to 
the north and south flows in, pushing the light air away 
and producing winds, known as the trade ivinds (Fig. 38), 
which begin in the temperate zone, hundreds of miles away. 
Since the heated air must escape somewhere, it rises far 
above the surface, and then moves back in the same direc- 
tion from which it came, forming the anti-trade winds (Fig. 
38). The atmosphere extends many miles above the earth, 



WIND AND BAIN 43 

so that there is plenty of room for two winds blowing in 
opposite directions, one above the other. 

In Cuba, the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere, where the trade 
winds at the surface are blowing toward the southwest, one 
notices that the clouds far up in the sky are steadily borne in 
the opposite direction by the anti-trades- Also, when vol- 
canoes in Central America have been in eruption, the ashes 
that were blown out from them have been carried hundreds of 
miles in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing trade 
winds at the surface. 

Being cooled on account of its great height, the air of 
the anti-trades slowly settles, some of it coming to the 
surface at about a third of the distance to the poles. 
There it spreads out, a part continuing on toward the 
poles, a part returning to the equator as the trade 
winds (Fig. 38). 

As you see, the correspondence between these currents 
in the atmosphere and those in the room is quite close. 
In both cases air moves in toward a heated place, then up, 
then outward and down, and once more inward toward the 
heated part. 

Effect of Rotation. — There are differences, however, and one 
of them is especially important. In the case of the room, the 
currents move directly toward the stove; then, after rising, 
directly away from it. If the earth stood perfectly still, the 
trade winds woidd doubtless blow directly toward the equator 
from the north and south (dotted lines, Fig. 39). 

The daily rotation of the earth, from west to east, greatly 
interferes with that movement. Because of rotation, the trade 
winds are turned, or deflected, from their straight course 
toward the equator. Those from the north are turned to the 
right, so that they come from the northeast; and those from the 



u 



A GENERAL STUDY OF XORTH AMERICA 




south are turned toward the left, and therefore come from the 

southeast (Fig. 39). 

The direction of the anti-trades is also changed toward the 

right in the northern hemisphere, where they blow from 

the southwest, and 
toward the left in 
the southern hemi- 
sphere, where they 
blow from the north- 
west. Thus the anti- 
trades blow over the 
same route as the 
trade winds, but in 
the opposite direc- 
tion. We can only 
state the facts here, 
for the explanation 
is far too difficult to 
give. 



Belt of Cat, 
EOtfA-T-OR— 




Fig. 39. 



The dotted arrows show the direction the trade 
■winds would take if the earth's rotation did not 
deflect them to the left in the southern hemis- 
phere aud to the right in the northern. By de- 
flection they are turned as indicated hy the 
other arrows. 



Since the sun, 
which is the cause 
of the different 
zones of heat, has 
shone for millions of years, and will probably continue to 
shine for millions more, we may be certain that these great 
winds are permanent winds. The currents of air in a room 
cease when the stove grows cold ; but. for ages to come, 
the sun will heat the torrid zone more than the temperate. 
Thus the trade winds will be kept in motion day and 
night, winter and summer, as they now are, and as they 
w r ere when they helped Columbus on his venturesome 
voyage across the Atlantic. 

Effect of Revolution. — The belt of most intense heat is not 
always in exactly the same part of the earth, being north of 



WIND AND RAIN 



45 



the equator in June, when the sun is vertical at the Tropic of 
Cancer, and south of it in December, when the sun's rays are 
vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn. This causes the trade and 
anti-trade winds to change their position somewhat, being far- 
ther north in summer than in winter (Figs. 40 and 42). So 
here is another important effect of revolution ; for by it, in many 
places, the trade winds are caused to blow during a part of the 
year while they are absent during the remainder. 



The Belt of Calms. — At the place where the air of the 
trades rises, that is, moves upward instead of along the sur- 
face, the winds 
are weak and 
irregular, often 
dying down to 
a calm. This 
•is called the belt 
of calms (Fig. 
38), or the dol- 
drums. Over 
this belt, which 
is several hun- 
dred miles in 
width, the air 
grows cool as it 
rises, and the va- 
por which it carries is condensed, forming clouds and rain. 

For these reasons the doldrums form a very rainy belt 
extending entirely around the earth (Fig. 44). Clouds 
begin to form there nearly every morning ; and by after- 
noon, when earth and air have become much heated, the 
air rises more actively, and heavy showers occur, often 
accompanied by fierce thunder and lightning. 




Fig. 40. 

Diagram to show the position of the belt of calms 
and the trade winds in winter. Compare with 
Figure 42. 



4G A GEXERAL STUDY OF SOUTH AMERICA 

The rainy belt of calms is of course always in the torrid 
zone, and usually not far from the middle of it (Figs. 40 
and 42). It is the heavy rain there that supplies the damp- 
ness necessary for the dense jungles of the tropical forests 
of the Amazon valley. Central Africa, and the East Indies. 

This is one of the rainiest regions in the "world : but the belt 
of calms is not always in the same position, moving northward 















in 


Xjg ^ 




1 1 1 


ffgC* 


■f¥R 


fT*. 




;." ' 





Fig. 41. 
A scene iu the dense tropical forest of the belt of calms. 

in summer and southward in winter (Figs. 40 and 42). As a 
result of this, places having heavy rains in one season, when 
the belt of calms has moved to them, have much less rain in 
the opposite season. This is very well illustrated in northern 
Africa, between the Sahara desert and the Sudan, where there 
is plenty of rain in summer and very little in winter. 



WIND AND RAIN 



47 



The Trade Wind Belt. — In blowing over the ocean, the 
trade winds obtain a great deal of vapor ; and, as we have 
seen, some of 
this is con- 
densed to form 
rain in the belt 
of calms. But 
some of it falls 
as rain before 
reaching that 
belt. 

Notice in 
Figure 44 that 
much more rain 
falls on the 
eastern side of 
South America 




TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 



Fig. 42. 

Diagram to show the position of the trade wind belts 
and the belt of calms in summer. Compare with 
Figure 40. 



than on the western side. Notice also that south of the 
equator the trade winds blow from the southeast, while 
north of it they blow from the northeast. This causes 
them to reach South America after having passed over 
the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore the winds arrive on the 
eastern coast charged with vapor ; then, as they rise over 
the land and become cooler, some of the vapor condenses 
to form rain. 

From this it is evident that there is a very rainy region 
not only in the belt of calms, but also in those places, just 
north and south of it, where the trade winds blow from 
the ocean upon the land. 

After having passed over the land, the air of the trade 
winds is often so dry that deserts are caused (Fig. 43). 
In the First Book (p. 249), it was stated that the winds 



48 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NOBTH AMERICA 



of Australia, which lies in the south trade wind belt, 
are robbed of their moisture by the highlands near the 

eastern coast. Thus 
the interior of Aus- 
tralia is a desert. 
There are also heavy 
rains in the trade 
wind belt on the east- 
ern side of the Andes, 
while the western side, 
in Peru and Chile, is 
arid, although very 
near the ocean. 
In Xorth America much the same thing is seen ; for, 
while the eastern coast of southern Mexico has plenty of 
rain, central and western Mexico are arid, and in parts 




Fig. 43. 

Picture of a desert. Notice the- absence of 
trees. Contrast this with Figure 41. 



I 1 LIGHT RAINFALL 

=IJ MODERATE RAINFALL 
W^m HEAVY RAINFALL 




Fig. 44. 

A small map of the world to show the regions of heavy, moderate, and light 
rainfall. The arrows show the direction of the prevailing winds. 

almost a desert. The desert of Sahara is also in the trade 
wind belt, but the winds reach it only from the land. 



WIND AND BAIN 



49 



We have said that both the trade wind belts and the belt of 
calms change their position somewhat with the season. This 
of course also changes the rainy belts each season. Therefore 
in parts of the torrid zone people speak of the rainy and dry 
seasons much as we do of the summer and winter. 



The Horse Latitudes. — It was said (p. 43) that a part 



of the air of the anti-trades settles to the 
returns as trade winds toward the belt of 
38). At this place there is a belt of 
able winds with frequent calms, because 
coming down instead of 
moving along the surface. 
This belt is known as the 
horse latitudes. 1 



earth and 

calms (Fig. 

light, vari- 

the air is 




While rising air becomes 
cool, thus causing clouds and 
rain, air that is settling and be- 
coming warmer is dry and 
clear. Therefore in the horse 
latitudes there is little rain; 
indeed, there are numerous 
arid sections in this belt also, 
as the dry plateau of Spain, 
and the great deserts of central 
Asia (Fig. 45). 

The horse latitude belt extends across southern United 
States (Fig. 46), and this is one of the principal reasons for 
the dry plains of western Texas, and the desert regions of 
New Mexico, Arizona (Fig. 45), and southern California. Flor- 
ida and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico are in the same belt ; 

1 Called horse latitudes because sailing vessels, carrying horses from 
New England to the West Indies in the early days, were so delayed by 
the calms that the horses had to be thrown overboard when the drinking 
water gave out. 



Fig. 45. 

A giant cactus, on the desert of south- 
ern Arizona, in the horse latitudes. 



50 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



but they are so near the ocean that sea breezes and monsoon 
winds bring an abundance of rain to them. 

The Prevailing Westerlies. — Not all the air of the anti- 
trades settles in the horse latitudes ; some moves on toward 




Fig. 46. 

A map to show the rainfall of the United States in inches ; that is, the numher 
of inches of water that would collect all over the surface iu a year if all 
the rain remained where it fell. 

the poles (Fig. 38). If you watch the higher clouds, 
you will find that they are moving from the wesx toward 
the east. In northern United States the winds at the sur- 
face are also more often from the west than from any other 
quarter. This belt, in which the prevailing winds are from 
the Avest, is known as the region of prevailing westerlies. 
Northern United States and Canada are included in it 
(Figs. 44 and 46). Keep a record of the direction of the 
winds for each day during a month. 



WIND AND RAIN 



51 



Winds are much more steady on the ocean than on the land 
for several reasons, the principal one being that the tempera- 
ture of the water does not change so quickly as that of the 
land. On land one place may become much warmer than an- 
other not far away, and then winds blow toward the warmer 
section. This often changes the direc- 
tion of the regular winds. 

So steady are the prevailing west- 
erlies over the ocean, that, in the 
southern hemisphere, where there is 
little land, they almost always blow 
from the west. Indeed, it is said that 
vessels, choosing a course south of 
Africa and South America, can sail 
around the world with fair winds al- 
most all the way, if they go toward 
the east ; but if they sail in the oppo- 
site direction, the winds are against 
them. 

In the prevailing westerly belt, 
we would naturally expect a heavy 
rainfall on the west coasts, as we 
do on the east coasts in the trade 
wind belt. The map (Fig. 46) 
shows that this is so in the United 
States ; and if Figure 44 were large 
enough it would show it for other 
sections of the world. For instance, 
south of the desert country of Peru 
and northern Chile, on the west 
coast of South America, there is 
an abundance of rain. 

North of the arid country of 
Mexico and southern California 




Fig. 47. 

Two of the giant trees of 
the warm, rainy helt of 
northern California. No- 
tice how small the man 
appears at the hase of the 
first tree. 



52 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

(Fig. 46) there is heavy rainfall from northern California 
to southern Alaska. It is in this rahry belt that the largest 
trees in the world are found (Fig. 47). 

Depositing so much of their vapor on the mountainous 
land near the coast, these winds soon become too dry to 
produce much rain. It is for this reason that the plains 
and plateaus of Idaho, Montana, western Dakota, and other 
states of the northwest, are for the most part too arid for 
agriculture without irrigation. 

Eastern United States and Canada. — One might expect 
that the west winds, so dry after passing over the moun- 
tains of the Western States, would continue on to the 
northeastern states and cause them to be arid also ; but 
we know that this is not the case. It is true that the 
ivest winds rarely bring rain ; but, in addition to them, 
there are east and south winds blowing from the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and these bring an abun- 
dance of vapor. 

In northern and eastern United States the winds are 
variable, and the temperature is very changeable. In any 
particular locality on one day it may be warm and pleasant, 
with a south wind ; the next day a cool, dry wind blows 
from the northwest ; after two or three days this gives 
p]ace to a cloudy sky and rain, brought on by south or 
east winds; and then fair, cool weather sets in, with the 
wind again from the northwest. 

There are, of course, reasons for these frequent changes, 
and in order to understand them, let us follow the weather 
changes for a few days. Out in the northwest there comes 
to be a place, or an area, of low pressure (Fig. 49); that 
is, an area where the air is lighter than that over the sur- 
rounding region. 



WIND AND BAIN 53 

The air from the surrounding country, where the press- 
ure is greater, hurries toward the low pressure area, even 
from hundreds of miles away, causing winds which on the 
south side blow from the south, on the east side from the 
east, and so forth (Fig. 49). 

Toward the place where the pressure is low, the air is 
flowing in from all sides, then rising. As it rises, the 
vapor condenses, forming clouds and rain, as in the belt 



Fig. 48. 

A section through a cyclonic storm to show the immense area of clouds and 
rain. A, represents the Appalachian Mountains ; M, the Mississippi River. 
The direction of the winds is shown by the arrows. 

of calms. Such an area of low pressure, with its clouds 
and rain, is known as a cyclonic storm area (Fig. 48), and 
it is during these storms that most of the rain of north- 
eastern United States and Canada comes. 

Instead of remaining in one place, the cyclonic storms 
steadily travel onward, usually beginning in the north- 
west and always passing eastward (Fig. 50). The paths 
followed by the storm centres generally pass over the 
Great Lakes, down the St. Lawrence Valley to the ocean, 
which they often cross, and reach even far into Eurasia. 
They move eastward because the prevailing westerlies carry 
them along: indeed, these great, whirling, cyclonic storms 
are apparently eddies in the prevailing westerlies, similar 
to the eddies in the current of a stream. 

The area of country upon which rain may be falling 
from the clouds of one of these storms is sometimes very 
great, places fully a thousand miles apart sometimes receiv- 



54 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 49. 

A weather map of the United States on a winter's day. The lines are lines of 
equal air pressure, — the lower the figure, the lighter the air (29.5 represent- 
ing lighter air than 29.7). The pressure is determined by an instrument 
called the barometer. Study this map carefully and tell about the air 
pressure, winds, temperature, and rain in different parts. 



ing rain at the same time (Fig. 48). As the storm moves 
eastward, it grows clear on the western side, while the 
cloudy and rainy parts appear farther and farther east- 
ward (Figs. 49 and 50). 

The vapor is brought toward the storm centre from the 
Gulf and the Atlantic Ocean, being carried by the winds for 
hundreds of miles, even into Canada. As stated on page 11. 
the fact that there is no high mountain range extending 
across southern United States is of great importance. If 
there were such mountains, instead of the low Appalach- 
ians and the open plains of the Mississippi Valley, the 
winds could not carry their vapor so far, but would drop 
it on the coast side, leaving the interior a desert. 



WIND AND BAIN 



55 




Fig. 50. 

Weather map for the day following that of Figure 49. Study this carefully, 
and tell how it differs from Figure 49. 

Not only are rains caused by these storms, but hot spells and 
other changes as well. Warm winds, blowing toward the low 
pressure areas from the 
south, are the cause of 
the winter thaws and the 
summer hot spells in the 
Eastern States. It is dur- 
ing these hot spells that 
thunder storms come ; 
also, in some places, torno> 
does (Fig. 51), often called 
" cyclones," in which the 
winds blow so fiercely that 
trees are overturned and 
houses torn to pieces. 

After a low pressure area has passed eastward and the 
storm is over, the wind generally blows from the west. This 
causes cool, dry weather in summer, and cold snaps in winter. 




Fig. 51. 

Picture of a tornado in Illinois that did 
great damage because of the fierce 
winds which accompanied it. 



56 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Then it is said that a cold ivave has come ; and this, sweeping 
over the East, and even far into the South, often does great 
damage to fruit trees and other delicate plants. 

Weather Maps. — Figure 49 shows a cyclonic storm in the 
northwest, the arrows indicating how the winds blow in from 
all sides toward the centre of low pressure. Farther east is a 
region of high pressure. In Figure 50, the high and low press- 
ure areas are again represented; but, since it is a day later, 
they have moved eastward ; and the following day they would 
be still farther east. You see from these maps how the direc- 
tion of the wind for any one locality has changed as the low 
pressure areas have passed over the country. 

Although the cause of these storms is not yet fully under- 
stood, they are so regular, and their importance is so great, 
that the United States government has established a Weather 
Bureau which employs a large force of men, stationed in differ- 
ent parts of the country, to observe the pressure of air, direc- 
tion of wind, etc., and to telegraph the facts to Washington. 
These observations, made at the same time at all stations, 
furnish information which enables men to foretell the weather. 
Their predictions are greatly aided by the fact that all of the 
storms and high, pressure areas will move eastward. 

Maps, similar to those of Figures 49 and 50, called weather 
maps, are also sent out. By the predictions of the Weather 
Bureau, farmers and gardeners are warned against damaging 
frosts, and sailors against severe storms. Hundreds of thou- 
sands of dollars are saved in this way nearly every year. 

Especially valuable service has been rendered by the Weather 
Bureau in predicting the very fierce hurricanes that arise in 
the West Indies and sometimes do great damage there, as well 
as on our own coast. These resemble the cyclonic storms, but 
are much more destructive. 

Since the storms and high pressure areas have so great an 
influence on our weather, you will find it of interest to study 
the weather yourself. Watch the changes in wind, tempera- 
ture, clouds, and rain; and if there is a barometer at hand, 
observe how it changes as the high and low pressure areas come 



WIND AND RAIN 57 

and go. A great aid to such a study will be found in the 
weather maps, on which are printed full information about the 
weather each day and predictions for the next day. See how 
nearly correct these predictions are. 

Questions. — (1) In what ways are winds important? (2) Ex- 
plain the sea breeze. (3) How are monsoons caused? (4) Where 
are they found? (5) Describe the circulation of the air in a room 
heated by a stove. (6) What is the cause of the trade winds? 
(7) Of the anti-trades? (8) What proofs have we that the anti- 
trades blow steadily? (9) What becomes of the air of the anti- 
trades? (10) Compare this circulation to that of air in a room. 

(11) What effect has rotation on the direction of these winds? 

(12) Why may we feel certain that these winds are permanent? 

(13) What effect has revolution of the earth upon the position of the 
trade wind belts? (14) Describe the conditions in the belt of calms. 
(15) What effect has the change of seasons upon the position of this 
belt? (16) What about the rainfall of eastern coasts in the trade 
wind belt? (17) Of western coasts? (18) In what way do the 
trade winds help to cause deserts ? (19) What influence upon rain- 
fall has the change of the trade winds with the season ? (20) What 
are the horse latitudes ? (21) What about the rainfall there ? Why? 
(22) Name some desert sections in that belt. (23) What are the pre- 
vailing westerlies? (24) Are they best developed on the land or 
the water? Why? (25) In the southern or northern hemisphere? 
Why? (26) What effect have the prevailing westerlies upon rain- 
fall? Give examples. (27) What is the cause of the dry plains of 
the northwest? (28) Which winds are dry in northeastern United 
States? Why? (29) Which winds bring vapor ? Why? (30) Men- 
tion several changes of weather that may often be noticed within a 
few days. (31) Tell some that you have recently noticed yourself. 
(32) What happens when there is a low pressure area surrounded 
by higher pressure? (33) What is a cyclonic storm? Of what 
importance are such storms? (34) Tell about their movement. 
(35) Tell about the rain. Whence does it come ? Over how much 
country does it fall? (36) What changes in temperature occur? 
(37) Explain the two maps (Figs. 49 and 50) . How are they differ- 
ent ? How alike ? (38) What are the duties of the Weather Bureau ? 
(39) What are weather maps? (40) Of what value is the work of 
the Weather Bureau ? 



58 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Suggestions. — (1) Estimate the number of barrels of water that 
falls on an acre of ground, or upon a city block, in one year, where the 
rainfall is forty inches. (2) How is a movement of air secured in 
your schoolroom in order to ventilate it? (3) Show on a map or 
globe where the trade wind belt is on the Atlantic ; the belt of 
calms; the horse latitudes; the prevailing westerlies. (4) Inquire 
of some one who has been in the torrid zone about the winds and 
rains there. (5) Do the same for Arizona and southern California. 
(6) If you live in the northeastern states, watch how the winds blow 
before and after a storm. (7) Examine a map sent out by the 
Weather Bureau. Perhaps your teacher can have them sent regularly 
by writing to the Weather Bureau at Washington. (8) Keep records 
of the weather. (9) Find a barometer and notice how it changes 
from day to day. (10) Write a description of a tornado from an 
account in the newspaper. (11) Read once more the section on "Air " 
in the First Book, page 71. (12) Write an account of the change in 
the weather for five days in succession, the wind direction and force, 
the clouds, rain, temperature, and, if possible, the air pressure. 

For References, see page 439. 



IV. OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION 
OF TEMPERATURE 



Like the air, the ocean water is in motion, its three 
principal movements being wind waves, tides, and ocean 
currents. 

Wind Waves 

Waves are formed by winds which blow over the surface of 
the water and ruffle it, sometimes, during storms, causing it to 
rise and fall to a height of from twenty to forty feet. 




Fig. 52. 

Surf on the New Jersey coast, caused by the breaking of the waves as they 
approach the beach. 

In the open ocean, waves are rarely very dangerous to large 
vessels ; but upon the seashore, they do great damage to ves- 
sels and even to the coast itself, wearing away the rocks and 
dragging the fragments out to sea. The constant beating of 
the waves (Fig. 52) is slowly eating the coast away. 

59 



60 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



Tides 

What the Tides are. — People living upon the seacoast 
are familiar with the fact that the ocean water rises for 
about six hours and then slowly falls. This rising and fall- 
ing of the water 
twice each day 
forms what is 
known as the tide. 
For a long time it 
puzzled men to ex- 
plain this : it was 
called the breath- 
ing of the earth, 
and by certain un- 
civilized races it 




Fig. 53. 
High tide on a part of the New Eugland coast. 



is to this day thought to be caused by some great animal. 
As a result of careful study, we have learned that the 
tides are caused 
by the moon and 
the sun, espe- 
cially the former. 
Each of these 
bodies is pulling 
upon the earth, 
by the attraction 
of gravitation, as 
a horseshoe mag- 
net pulls upon a 
piece of iron. When the sun and moon pull upon the 
earth, the ocean, being a liquid that can be moved, is 
drawn slightly out of shape. This causes two great 




Fig. 54. 

The same region as Figure 53 at low tide, 
pare the two figures. 



Com- 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 



61 



swells, or waves (Fig. 55), many hundreds of miles broad, 
which pass around the earth, following the moon. When 




Fig. 55. 

A diagram to show how the moon pulls upon the earth and causes the tide 
waves. Of course their height is not so great as the diagram suggests. 

these swells reach the shores, they cause the rise of water 
known as the tide. 

Height of the Tidal Wave . — The tidal wave is only 
two or three feet high upon headlands which project into 
the open ocean ; but it rises 
a great deal higher in many 
bays. There the wave is 
raised higher because the 
space that it occupies be- 
comes narrower near the 
head of the bay. In some 
such places, as in the Bay 
of Fundy, the tide reaches a height of forty or fifty feet. 




Fig. 56. 

Position of earth, moon, and sun at new 
moon, when spring tides are caused 
by sun and moon pulling together. 




Fig. 57. 

Earth, sun, and moon at the quarter of 
the moon, when sun and moon do 
not pull together. 



The height of the tide also 
varies from day to day, for 
the moon and sun, which com- 
bine to form it, do not always 
work together. At new moon 
and full moon, when the earth, 
moon, and sun are nearly in 
one line (Fig. 56), the moon 
and sun pull together and 
make the tidal wave higher 



62 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



than at the quarter, when the moon is forming a tidal wave in 
one place and the sun in another (Fig. 57). The high range 
of tides at full and new moon are called spring tides, those at 
the quarters, neaj) tides. 

Effects of Tides. — In the open ocean the tides are of no 
importance, and a sailor might spend weeks at sea without 
ever knowing that there were tides. But along the coast, 
where the water rises and falls against the beaches and cliffs, 
the tides are very noticeable (Figs. 53, 54) and important. 




Fig. 58. 

Sandy Hook, on the south side of New York Bay, built of sand driven along by 
the waves and tidal currents, and then piled into sand dunes by the wind. 

Where the coast is irregular, the tide is often changed 
to a current, which sometimes moves so rapidly that a sail- 
ing vessel cannot make headway against it, but must wait 
until the tide changes. Such a rapid current is found in 
one of the entrances to New York harbor, at what is known 
as Hell Gate, where the channel is narrow and rocky. 

These tidal currents, moving in one direction during the in- 
coming or flood tide, and in the opposite direction during the 
outgoing or ebb tide, not only aid ships which are going with 
them, and retard those going against them, but they sometimes 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 63 

drift vessels out of their course and place them in dangerous 
positions. Many a ship has been lost by being wrecked upon 
a coast where it was drifted by the tidal currents. 

Another effect of the tidal currents is upon the harbors. 
These currents often carry sand hither and thither (Fig. 
58), and build bars opposite the mouths of harbors. This 
is one of the reasons why the harbors of our Southern 
States are no better (p. 20). In order to prevent some of 
them from being entirely shut in by bars, the govern- 
ment is obliged to spend large sums of money every year 
in order to remove the sand brought by the tidal currents. 

Ocean Currents 

Cause of Ocean Currents. — The winds which blow over 
the ocean, forming waves, also drive the water before them. 
You may do this in a small way by blowing on the surface 
of a pail of water. This starts a current, or drift, of sur- 
face water in the direction that the air is moving. Where 
the winds are steady, as in the trade wind belts, or mod- 
erately steady, as in the prevailing westerlies, there is a 
permanent drift of water, pushed along by the prevailing 
winds. These form the great system of ocean currents (Fig. 
59) which have such an important influence on the earth. 

Differences of temperature are also a cause of some move- 
ment, as in the case of the air. But since the sunlight cannot 
reach to the bottom of the ocean, the water there is not warmed, 
as the lower layers of the air are. Therefore a circulation ex- 
actly like that of the atmosphere is not found in the ocean. 
There is, however, a slow settling of cold water in the frigid 
zones, a movement along the ocean bottom, and a very slow 
rising in the torrid belt. While this movement is so slight that 
it can scarcely be noticed, it is because of this drift of water 



64 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

that the temperature of the ocean bottom is so low. Even at 
the equator, the temperature of the ocean bottom is nearly 
at the freezing point. 

The North Atlantic Eddy. — Let us now study the main 
ocean currents on each side of North America (Fig. 59). 

In that part of the Atlantic where the trade winds 
blow (Fig. 44, p. 48), the surface water drifts slowly in 
the direction of the trade winds ; that is, toward the belt 
of calms. It then drifts westward, as a great equatorial 
drift, until the easternmost extremity of South America 
interferes with its course. There the drift of water is 
divided, a part being turned southward, while the greater 
portion proceeds northwestward. 

The part which flows northward is deflected toward the 
right by the effect of rotation, as the winds are (p. 43) ; 
and the part which flows into the South Atlantic is turned 
to the left, also by the effect of rotation. Therefore, the 
northern drift, instead of coming near to the mainland of 
North America, keeps turning to the right, crossing the 
Atlantic to Europe. It then passes southward, and finally 
returns to the trade wind belt where it started, having 
made a complete circuit. 

Coming from the equatorial region, this water is warm, ami 
in it live countless millions of animals and floating plants. 
Among the latter, oue of the most abundant is a seaweed, 
called Sargassum, which is thrown into the middle of this 
great eddy. There it has collected until it now forms a 
" grassy " or " Sargasso " sea hundreds of miles in extent. 
Since the " Sargasso " Sea lies directly between Spain and the 
West Indies, Columbus was obliged to cross it on his first 
voyage of discovery; and his sailors, upon entering it, were 
much alarmed lest they might run aground, or become so en- 
tangled in the weed that they could not escape. 




&2ft 



W^f 







-fib 












$% 



66 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

As the drift of warm water eddies round toward the 
European coast, it carries some of the warmth of the torrid 
zone to that continent. This is one of the reasons why 
the climate of northern Spain is warmer than places in the 
United States at the same distance from the equator. 

The Gulf Stream. — A portion of the drift of water 
which moves northward along the northern coast of South 
America enters the Caribbean Sea and then passes into the 
Gulf of Mexico. This is a broad, deep, gently flowing cur- 
rent ; and it is so nearly surrounded by the warm tropical 
lands that it grows even warmer than when it entered the 
Caribbean. After swirling round the Gulf of Mexico, it 
escapes between Cuba and Florida, after which it is known 
as the Crulf Stream (Fig. 59) because it comes from the 
Grulf of Mexico. Being forced to pass out through so nar- 
row an opening, its rate of movement is much increased — 
even to four or five miles per hour — as water in a hose is 
made to increase its speed by passing through the nozzle. 
Measure the distance from Key West to Havana (Fig. 95). 

Being turned to the right by the effect of the earth's 
rotation, the Gulf Stream soon leaves the American coast 
and flows northeastward toward northern Europe. It 
broadens rapidly and joins forces with the western part of 
the great Atlantic eddy. In crossing the Atlantic, the 
drift is pushed along by the prevailing westerlies, so that 
it reaches the shores of northern Europe, and even enters 
the Arctic Ocean. Some idea of its size may be gained 
from the fact that it carries many times as much water as 
all the rivers of the world. 

The Labrador Current. — After being cooled, some of 
this water settles to the bottom and finds its way back to 
the torrid zone in the slow drift of cold water which is 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 



67 



forever moving along the ocean bottom from the frigid 
zone toward the equator (p. 63). But much of it returns 
at the surface, for there is a cold surface current, called 
the Labrador current, passing southward along our north- 
eastern coast (Fig. 59). 

The Labrador current flows down from among the 
islands of North America, past the coast of Labrador, New- 



foundland, 




Fig. 60. 



Nova Scotia, and New England. 
Like all ocean currents in the 
northern hemisphere, it is 
turned toward the right, 
that is, since it flows 
southward, toward the 
west. This causes 
it to follow our 
coast very close- 
ly, keeping 
nearer our 
shore than 
the Gulf 
Stream does. 



An Arctic whaling steamer imprisoned, off the coast of 
Baffin Land, in the floe ice which is being carried 
southward in the Labrador current. 



Since there 
are two cur- 
rents near to- 
gether, a cold one from the north, and a "warm one from the 
south, a vessel sailing from Boston to England must cross both. 
During winter storms a ship often becomes covered with snow 
and ice while in the cold Labrador current, but loses this coat- 
ing soon after entering the Gulf Stream. 

Where the cold and warm currents come near together, a 
dense fog is produced. You can doubtless explain why that is 
so (see First Book,* p. 77). Sailors who cross the Atlantic have 
learned to expect heavy fogs as they pass near the coast of 



68 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, which is one of the foggiest 
regions in the world. 

The Currents in the Pacific Ocean. — In the Pacific Ocean, 
as in the Atlantic (Fig. 59), the water drifts westward in 
the belt of calms ; then a broad, warm current swings to 
the right past Japan, crossing the ocean toward Alaska, 
as the Gulf Stream crosses the Atlantic toward Europe. 
This, called the Japanese current, carries much warmth 
from the torrid zone to the North Pacific, as the Gulf 
Stream does to the North Atlantic. Continuing to turn 
to the right, this current passes southward to complete 
the great eddy. There is another eddy in the South 
Pacific, similar to that in the South Atlantic. 

AVe see from what has been said, that, although the Gulf 
Stream flows past the Southern States, the northeastern 
coast of North America is bathed by an ocean current 
from the cold north. On the other hand, the northwestern 
coasts of Europe and North America are approached by 
warm currents from the south. That is, because of the 
earth's rotation, the warmer water is swung to the west- 
ern coasts of the continents rather than to the eastern. 

The Importance of these Currents. — The facts just stated 
are of great importance to us. Since the Gulf Stream 
crosses the Atlantic in a northeasterly direction, it hin- 
ders the passage of vessels bound westward, or against its 
current. Benjamin Franklin noticed this effect of the 
current when he was Postmaster General of the Ameri- 
can Colonies shortly before the Revolutionary War. He 
arranged for the carrying of the mails by ship between 
England and America, and one fact that -he observed was 
that vessels went to Europe in less time than they re- 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 



69 



turned. After studying the matter carefully, he decided 
that the Gulf Stream was the cause. 

While the Gulf Stream is a hindrance to vessels sailing 
against its current, it is in other respects of great service. 
From its warm waters the air obtains much vapor, which 
falls as rain in the United States and Europe ; and in its 
warm current a vast amount of heat is carried northward. 
When Nansen started on his famous journey toward the 
north pole, he entered the Arctic Ocean with this current. 
Thus, since its warm water keeps that part of the Arctic 
free from ice in summer, he was able to proceed much 
farther than he otherwise could have gone. 




Fig. 61. 

Icebergs that have broken off from the Greenland glacier. 

The Labrador current flows as far- south as Cape Cod, so 
that the water north of this promontory must be cooler than 
that south of it. As the cold current leaves the Arctic region, 
it bears with it much sea ice which has been frozen during the 
preceding winters (Fig. 60), and also gigantic icebergs which 
have broken off from the Greenland glacier (Fig. 61). It is 
upon this drifting ice that the polar bear spends much of his 
time hunting for seals which live in great numbers in the ice- 
covered waters (Fig. 62). 



70 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

The icebergs may be carried southward one or two thousand 
miles before the air and water melt them away (see limit of ice- 
bergs on Fig. 59). Indeed, some icebergs float even as far south 
as the paths followed by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since 
many bergs are larger than the greatest building in the world, 
collision with one means shipwreck ; therefore sailors need to 
use great caution, especially when the ship is in the fog. 




Fig. 62. 
Polar bear and seal on the floe ice of the Labrador current. 

The cold Labrador current affects the temperature upon 
the land. Winds blowing over it carry the chill far in- 
land. This is one of the reasons why the east winds of 
New England are so cool and why the New England coast 
is such an agreeable summer resort. 

The warm Japanese current of the Pacific Ocean 
renders the southern part of Alaska far warmer than 
southern Labrador, which is farther south ; and the pre- 
vailing westerlies bring an abundance of vapor to the Pa- 



DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 71 

ciiic coast all the way from California to Alaska. Where 
these winds blow, the winters are mild and the rain heavy ; 
but the summers are cool and pleasant, because the ocean 
water, though warm, does not become greatly heated. 
Notice on a globe that the state of Washington, with its 
pleasant climate, is about the same distance from the 
equator as the bleak island of Newfoundland, whose shores 
are bathed by the cold Labrador current. 

The world, as a whole, as well as certain small sections, 
is greatly influenced by these ocean currents. It has been 
estimated that the Gulf Stream carries one-half as much 
heat into the Arctic as reaches it from the direct rays of 
the sun. In this way a great deal of northern country, 
which would otherwise be scarcely habitable, is made to 
support vast numbers of people. Notice on a map how 
many large cities are in that part of northern Europe which 
is the same distance from the equator as desolate Labrador. 

Besides thus influencing many parts of the earth, the warm 
currents have helped to form a great number of islands. Where 
warm currents flow, the water is often warm enough for corals 
to live ; and, since the moving water brings to them an abun- 
dance of tiny animals for food, colonies of corals flourish, 
and their skeletons gradually form reefs. In this way the 
southern half of Florida, the Bahamas, the Bermudas, and 
many of the islands in the South Pacific were built. 

Distribution of Temperature 

In general, it is true that the farther north we travel 
from the equator, the colder it grows ; but this is by no 
means always the case. If the earth were made of one 
solid, level substance, like glass, the temperature would 
gradually decrease from the equator to the poles. Then 



72 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



all points the same distance from the equator, as all on 
the Tropic of Cancer, or all on the Arctic Circle, for 
instance, would have the same temperature. 

But we have seen that there are several causes which 
interfere with this regular decrease in temperature toward 
the poles. For example, high mountains have a cold cli- 




Fig. 63. 

Isothermal chart of the United States for January. Why is it colder in the 
interior than on the east coast ? Why so warm on the west coast ? Can 
you notice any influence of mountains? 

mate, even though in the torrid zone ; and, for the same 
reason, plateaus may be colder than lowlands far north of 
them. 

Besides that, land warms and cools much more rapidly 
than water (p. 39), so that land becomes hotter in sum- 
mer and colder in winter than the ocean. Thus, in north- 
ern Minnesota, far from the coast, the average temperature 



DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 



73 



in January is below zero, while in July it is about 65° 
(Figs. 63 and 64). In New York City, on the coast, the 
average in January is about 25°, and in July not quite 75°. 
On the west coast, in the state of Washington, where the 
winds are blowing from the ocean, the average tempera- 
ture for January is 40° and for July 60°. 




Fig. 64. 

Isothermal chart of the United States for July. Notice the influence of the 
Rocky Mountains. Of the Appalachians. Why is it cooler on the west 
coast than on the east coast ? What makes the isotherms bend northward 
in the Mississippi Valley ? 

At Key West, Florida, which is surrounded by water, 
the average temperature in January is about 70°, and in 
July about 85°. Where the temperature changes but lit- 
tle, the climate is said to be equable. Compare San Fran- 
cisco and St. Louis in the two charts (Figs. 63 and 64). 

The winds greatly influence the temperature. Where 



74 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

they blow from the ocean, they cause an equable climate, 
as in California, near San Francisco ; but where they blow 
from the land, they are cool or cold in winter and warm 
in summer. This is true of the Eastern States, where 
most of the winds blow from the land, though some of the 
damp winds come from the ocean. 

Another cause for different temperatures in places 
equally distant from the equator is found in the ocean 
currents. We have already seen that the Gulf Stream 
warms the air, while the cold Labrador current cools it, 
and that this air in movement forms warm and cold winds 
(p. 70). 

If, therefore, we were to draw a line across the conti- 
nent, connecting several points that have the same aver- 
age temperature during any one month, or during the 
entire year, it would need to be a very crooked one, with 
some parts reaching much farther north than others. Such 
lines tell so much about temperature in so little space that 
it is the custom to make maps to show them, as in Figures 
63 and 64. Since the lines connect the places having the 
same temperature, they are called isothermal lines or iso- 
therms. (The first part of the word means equal, and the 
latter part heat?) A map or chart showing the isotherms 
is called an isothermal chart (Figs. 63 and 64). Trace 
several of the isotherms across the United States, and ex- 
plain why they bend as they do. 

Review Questions : Waves and Tides. — (1) Of what importance 
are the waves ? (2) How often does the tide rise and fall ? (3) What 
causes it ? (4) What causes it to vary in height from place to place ? 
(5) From time to time? (6) What important effects have tides? 

Ocean Currents. — (7) Explain how winds help to produce ocean 
currents. (8) What is the cause of the cold water on the ocean 
bottom? (9) Describe the drift of tropical waters in the Atlantic. 



DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 75 

(10) Trace the drift which passes outside of the West Indies to the 
European coast. (11) Describe the Gulf Stream. (12) Describe the 
Labrador current. (13) Trace the warm Japanese current. (14) What 
parts of the coast of North America are bathed by warm currents ? By- 
cold currents? (15) Tell about the discovery of the Gulf Stream by 
Franklin. (16) Of what importance is this current? (17) Tell about 
the ice which floats down with the Labrador current. (18) How does 
this current affect the climate of New England? (19) What influ- 
ence has the Japanese current on the climate of western North Amer- 
ica? (20) In what ways have the warm currents aided the building 
of many islands ? 

Distribution of Temperature. — (21) What about the change in tem- 
perature from equator to poles if the earth were a round ball of glass ? 
(22) How is this change interfered with by elevation? (23) By 
distance from the ocean? (24) Give several examples. (25) What 
influence have the winds? (26) The ocean currents? (27) State 
several reasons why it is not always true that the farther north 
one goes, the colder it grows. (28) What is an isothermal line? 
(29) An isothermal chart? 

Suggestions. — (1) If your home is upon the seacoast, find out 
about the high and low tides for several days in succession. (2) Notice 
the relation between the height and the time of high tide, on the one 
hand, and the changes in the moon, on the other. (3) From an al- 
manac find out what the time and height of tide will be for some day 
in the following month. How do you think this prediction is possi- 
ble? (4) Is the government obliged to spend money near your home 
to remove materials which the tidal currents have brought ? (5) What 
course might a vessel take in order to be carried from Europe to 
America and back again by ocean currents? (6) What precautions 
do vessels take to avoid running into one another in dense fogs ? 
(7) How do they try to avoid collisions with icebergs? (8) Learn 
more about Nansen's voyage. (9) Which of the isothermal lines on 
Figures 63 and 64 are nearest to your home? (10) Which isotherm 
on Figure 63 runs near New York and northern New Mexico" 
Near Savannah and San Francisco? Through southern Maine and 
southern Nebraska? (11) On Figure 64, which isotherm runs through 
northern Maine and San Francisco? (12) How about the distance of 
these points from the equator ? 

For References, see page 439. 



CLIMATE, PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND 

PEOPLES 



^ 




"Y o'er ^_°fs 




l.xa Northern Temperate juj 3 Arctic . 
I I Mi,Hl« Temperwo. 



Fig. 65. 

A map of North America, to show the four 
plant zones. Notice how irregular the 
houndaries are. Compare it with the 
isothermal chart. Figure 64, to see 
the cause. Also examine the relief map 
of North America, Figure 5. 



Climate. — "We have 
learned in the previous 
sections that several 
factors combine to deter- 
mine the weather and cli- 
mate of North America. 
The principal factors 
are (1) distance from the 
equator, (2) the changes 
of season, (3) eleva- 
tion of the land, (4) dis- 
tance from the ocean, 
(5) winds and storms, 
and (6) ocean currents. 
All these together de- 
termine the temperature 
and rainfall, which are 
the two most important 
elements of climate. 

The climate of a re- 
gion is one of the most 
important facts concern- 
ing it : for where tem- 
perature and rainfall are 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



IT 



favorable, plants usually grow luxuriantly. And since 
plants furnish animals with food, where vegetation is 
luxuriant, animal life may be abundant. 

Since North America extends far north and south, and 
possesses lofty mountain ranges and enclosed plateaus, 
it has a great variety of climates, and, therefore, a great 
variety of plant and animal life (Fig. 65). 

Plants of the North. — The northern part of the conti- 
nent is bitterly cold. In that region there is a vast area 
where the soil is 
always frozen, ex- 
cepting at the very 
surface, which 
thaws out for a few 
weeks in summer. 
On account of the 
frost, trees such as 
we are familiar with 
cannot grow. Their 
roots are unable to 
penetrate the frozen 
subsoil and to 
find the necessary 
plant food. There 
are some willows, 
birches, and a few 
other plants with woody tissue, bark, leaves, and fruit ; 
but instead of towering scores of feet into the air, they 
creep along the surface like vines, and rise but an inch or 
two above ground. Only by thus hugging the earth can 
they escape the fierce blasts of winter and find protection 
beneath the snow. 




Fig. 66. 

Arctic poppies growing on the edge of a snow- 
bank. 



78 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

A few grasses and small flowering plants grow rapidly, 
produce flowers, even close by the edge of snowbanks 
(Fig. 66), and then pass away, all within the few short 
weeks of summer. Some of these plants produce berries, 
which after ripening are preserved by the snows ; thus, 
when the birds arrive in the spring, they find food ready 
for them. 

Animals of the North. — The summer development of 
insects is rapid, like the growth of plants. As the snow 
melts and the surface thaws, the ground becomes wet and 
swampy, and countless millions of insects appear. Among 
them the most common is, apparently, the mosquito. 
There is no part of the world where this creature is a 
worse pest than on the barrens of North America and the 
tundras of Europe and Asia, as these treeless, frozen lands 
are called. 

Few large land animals are able to thrive in so cold a 
climate and where there is such an absence of plant food. 
The reindeer, or caribou, the musk-ox, polar bear, white 
fox, and Arctic hare are the largest four-footed land ani- 
mals (Fig. 67) ; and the crow, sparrow, and ptarmigan 
are the most common land birds. 

The ptarmigan changes its plumage to white in winter, and 
other animals of the Arctic, such as the fox, polar bear, baby 
seal, and hare, are also white. This serves to conceal them, in 
that land of snow and ice, so that they may hide from their 
enemies, or steal upon their prey unawares. 

The tiny white fox feeds upon birds and other animal food ; 
but the other land animals, except the polar bear, live upon 
plants, such as berries, grass, and moss. The caribou finds a 
kind of plant, called " reindeer moss," which grows upon rocks 
that rise above the deep winter snows. If it were not for this, 
the reindeer would not be able to live through the long winter. 




CARIBOU 



MUSK OX 



Fig. 67. 

Some of the animals of the North. The great auk had such small wings that it could 
not fly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been completely 
exterminated. 



80 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic 
regions, many more have their homes in the sea, because 
there, excepting at the very surface, the temperature 
never descends below the freezing point. Therefore, 
there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from the very 

tiniest forms to the 
whale, the largest 
animal in the world 
(Fig. 254, p. 326). 
During the winter 
the surface of the 
sea freezes over; 
and then many of 
the sea animals mi- 
grate southward. 
Even the huge wal- 
rus (Fig. 68) moves 
clumsily toward a 
more favorable cli- 
mate. The birds 
go farthest, espe- 
cially the geese, 
ducks, and gulls, which fly to Labrador, New England, 
North Carolina, and even farther south, to spend the win- 
ter where their food is not covered by ice. 

Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 67), building 
their nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, 
they are so numerous that, when suddenly frightened, as by 
the firing of a gun, they rise in a dense cloud that obscures the 
sun. Then, by their cries they produce a din that is almost 
deafening. In the water live seals (Figs. 62 and 286) and wal- 
ruses, the former being so valuable for their oil and skins that 




Fig. 68. 
Walrus on the Arctic floe ice. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 81 

men go on long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from a 
layer of fat, or " blubber," just beneath the skin, that serves to 
keep out the cold. 

The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and 
is the principal food of the Eskimo and the polar bear 
(Fig. 62). The bear, protected from observation by his white 
color, stealthily creeps upon his prey, asleep upon the ice ; or, 
he patiently watches until his victim swims within reach, and 
then seizes him in his powerful claws. 

Life on Mountain Tops. — In many respects the life on moun- 
tain tops resembles that of the Arctic regions. On the crests of 
lofty mountains it is cold, and large animals are rare, while the 
plants resemble those of the cold North (Fig. 74). There are 
no trees, though creeping willows and birches abound. Indeed, 
some of the plants are actually the same as those of the North. 
For instance, on the top of Mt. Katahdin, Maine, some of the 
plants are of the same species as those thriving in Labrador, 
Baffin Land, and Greenland. Arctic plants also occur on the 
mountain tops in North Carolina. 

Plants and Animals in Western North America. — A 

large part of western United States and Mexico has a 
very slight rainfall, although its temperature is agreeable. 
This arid area includes most of the territory having less 
than twenty inches of rain (Fig. 46, p. 50). In some 
places, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain 
tops and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to 
thrive ; but in most parts of the Far West the climate is 
so dry that there are no trees whatsoever. Indeed, some 
portions of the West are desolate in the extreme and 
almost devoid of life, both plant and animal ; in other 
words, they are true deserts. 

One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because 
it grows in little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant 
with a pale green leaf, named because of its sagelike odor, 



82 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



is found throughout most of this arid region. Other 
common plants are the mesquite, the century plant with 

its sharp-pointed leaves (Fig. 
304, p. 383), and the cactus 
with its numerous thorns. In 
favorable spots, especially in 
the warm southwest, the mes- 
quite grows to large size ; and 
the cactus, which in the north 
is always low and represented 
by only a few kinds, in the 
southwest, as in Arizona, 
grows in great variety and, in 
some cases, even to the height 
of trees (Figs. 69and 45,p.49). 




Fig. 69. 

Giant cactus in the desert of south- 
western Arizona. 

On account of the extreme 
dryness of the climate, these 
plants have a severe struggle 
for existence, and adopt pe- 
culiar means for protecting 
themselves. For example, the 
cactus, unlike other plants, 
has no leaves. It thus ex- 
poses little surface to the air 




Fig. 70. 
One of the peculiar plants of the arid 
lands, growing to the size of a tree 
in the warm, dry climate of southern 
Arizona. 



for evaporation. In its great, fleshy stem it stores water to use 
through the long, dry seasons, while spines protect it from ani- 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



83 



mals in search of food. The mesquite also protects itself by 
spines, and in addition has such large roots that the part of 
the plant under ground is greater than that above. Many of 
these plants, as the sage bush and mesquite, are so bitter that 
they are not eaten by animals. 

Animals eat few of the arid land plants except the 
grasses, which were once the food of the buffalo or bison 
(Figs. 71 and 76), and are now the support of cattle and 
sheep (Figs. 77 and 288, p. 362). The bison, whose home 




Fig. 71. 
Photograph of a young bison. 

was on the prairies and the arid plains east of the Rocky 
Mountains, is now gone ; and few large animals are left 
in its place. The cowardly prairie wolf, or coyote, and 
the graceful antelope and rabbits upon which it feeds, 
are the most abundant (Fig. 72). Among the rabbits is 
the long-legged jack rabbit, which leaps across the plains 
with astonishing speed, with its huge ears thrown back 
so far that they do not retard its progress. 

The traveller through the arid lands meets with few more 
interesting creatures than the prairie dogs which live in small 
communities, called prairie-dog towns (Fig. 72). Their homes 




GRIZZLY BEAR 



PRAIRIE DOG 



Fig. 72. 
Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountains of the Far West. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 85 

are in the ground and their food consists of grass. They do 
not venture far from their burrows for fear of the coyotes 
which may be lurking near; and upon the least alarm they 
utter a shrill note and tumble headlong into their burrows. 

There are birds and some lower animals, as the poisonous 
tarantula, centipede and scorpion, besides snakes, especially 
the poisonous rattlesnake (Fig. 72). 

The fierce puma or mountain lion still lives among the 
mountains, and also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly bears 
(Fig. 72), though the latter are now rare and difficult to 
find. Deer and elk inhabit the forest-covered mountains 
of southern Canada and northwestern United States ; and 
among the higher peaks a few mountain goats and sheep 
still live on the more inaccessible rocky crags (Fig. 72). 
The sheep have huge horns much prized by hunters. 

Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone. — Contrast 
the life in the frozen North and the arid West with that 
in Central America and southern Mexico. In these re- 
gions, which are situated in the torrid zone, the tempera- 
ture is always warm ; and the rainfall, especially on the 
eastern coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are favor- 
able for dense vegetation. 

Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is so great that 
it is practically impossible to pass through it without hewing 
one's way. Besides trees and underbrush, there are quantities 
of ferns, vines, and flowers, many of which hang from the trees 
with their roots in the air instead of in the ground (Fig. 41, 
p. 46). They are able to live this way on account of the damp 
air. Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, 
ebony, and rubber tree ; and among the flowers are the beauti- 
ful orchids. On account of the continual warmth and mois- 
ture, many plants, like the banana for instance, bear fruit 
throughout the year. 



86 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is 
wonderfully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, 
monkey, and jaguar (Fig. 73) ; brilliantly colored birds, 
such as parrots, paroquets, and humming birds ; and mil- 
lions of insects. Scorpions and centipedes abound, and 
ants exist, in countless numbers, some in the ground, 
others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them 
poisonous, are common in the forests ; and in the rivers 
are fish and alligators, the latter being found as far north 
as Florida and Louisiana. 

The plants and animals of the torrid zone are well adapted 
to their surroundings, like those of the Arctic and the desert. 
The jaguar and ocelot are speckled, or spotted, like a surface 
upon which the sunlight plays when it has struck through 
deep shade ; the brown alligator is in color much like the mud 
banks on which he lies ; and all the brilliantly colored animals 
are in harmony with the intense lights and the bright hues of 
tropical plants. This resemblance to their surroundings aids 
them in hiding, whether from their own enemies, or from the 
creatures which they are seeking for food. 

Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part of North 
America. — Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both 
east and west of the arid region, is an area of moderate 
rainfall and temperature where the vegetation and animals 
differ from those of the other sections. Beginning in the 
warm South and passing northward, we find that both 
animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied 
until, near the Arctic zone, they become scarce and few in 
kind. The pines and oaks of the United States give place 
to the spruce, balsam fir, and maple in Canada ; then 
these gradually become stunted and disappear (Fig. 74), 
and beyond this the barrens are reached (p. 78). 




ANACONDA 



THcM.N.Co,8ijrFALO. 



ALLIGATOR 



Fig. 73. 
A few of the animals of the tropical forests. 



88 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

The animals that once inhabited the broad temperate 
zone have been mostly destroyed, although some still live 
in the forest and mountain region. They are carefully 
protected by state laws, which prohibit shooting except at 
certain seasons, and then only in small numbers. When 
America was first visited by Europeans, these woods 
abounded in deer, moose, caribou, wolves, and foxes (Fig. 
75). Beavers built dams across the streams, the mink 
and otter fished in the waters, and bears roamed at will. 




Fig. 74. 

Appearance of the trees at the tree line, hoth on the slopes of mountains and 
near the Arctic zone. 

Among the birds, the eagle was common (Fig. 75), and 
wild pigeons and turkeys were so abundant that they 
were one of the principal foods of the early settlers. 

Some believe that at one time most of eastern United States 
was wooded, including the fertile prairies of the Mississippi 
Valley, from which the trees were burned by fires set by the 
Indians. Grass then sprang up in place of the trees, and the 
prairies became the grazing place for immense herds of bison 
(Figs. 71 and 76). The bison, however, like the other animals 
mentioned, have been mostly destroyed; thousands upon thou- 
sands were slaughtered for their hides and tongues alone, and 




HEDGEHOG 



Fig. 75. 
Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 



90 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



their bones left to whiten upon the plains. There are now no 
Avild bison in the United States, except a few which are pro- 
tected by the government in the Yellowstone National Park. 
In this Park, where hunting is prohibited, are numbers of deer 




Fig. 76. 

One of the immense herds of hison that formerly roamed over the treeless 

plains. 

and elk (Fig. 72). There are also black, cinnamon, and grizzly 
bears, which are so tame that they come down to the hotels at 
night to feed upon the garbage. 

Cultivated Crops and Domesticated Animals. — A slow 
change has been in progress in this temperate section, 
which, when first discovered, was clothed in forests and 
luxuriant prairie grass, and inhabited by Indians and wild 
beasts. The white man has come into possession of the 
land and has cleared the forests and ploughed the prairies, 
so that, where trees stood and Indians hunted game, there 
are now fertile farms and thriving cities. 

The laws of climate that determine what kinds of plants 
and animals shall live in the different sections, are also 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 91 

governing man himself to a certain extent. He is able 
to raise sugar and cotton in the South ; but north of this 
there soon comes a belt where these crops cannot be raised, 
though corn may be produced. Still farther north, even 
corn cannot be grown, but oats, barley, and other hardy 
crops. Farther north still, man has been obliged to leave 
nature much as it always has been. In the arid lands, 
however, he has been able to raise products, even in the 
desert, wherever water can be led to the thirsty soil. 

His domesticated animals have also been influenced 
somewhat by surroundings. In the arid portions of the 




Fig. 77. 
Cattle feeding on the Great Plains, where the herds of bison formerly roamed. 

Far West, cattle have been allowed to roam in a semi-wild 
state where the bison formerly lived. But in the more 
humid central, eastern, and southern sections, where the 
land is better suited to agriculture, cattle are more care- 
fully reared. Those in the West are raised only for their 
meat and hides ; but those in the East furnish, in addi- 
tion, milk for butter and cheese. 

Crops and domesticated animals well illustrate how man has 
learned to make use of nature for his needs. Every one of our 



92 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



farm products was once a wild plant ; and each of our domesti- 
cated animals has been tamed from the wild state. Most of 
these have come from Europe and Asia; but America has 
added some to the list. Among plants in common use, the 
Indian corn or maize, the tobacco, tomato, pumpkin, and potato 
were never known to the world until America was discovered. 
The same is true of the turkey ; and perhaps, in a hundred 
years or so, the bison may be included among the domesticated 
animals, for on the cattle ranches of the West a few small 
herds are being carefully reared. 



Peoples 

Eskimos. — America was inhabited for thousands of 
years before it was discovered by white men. To the 
natives in the southern part Columbus 
gave the name Indians, supposing he had 
reached India. Those in the Far North, 
who subsist on meat, are called Eski- 
mos, a word meaning flesh-eaters. 

To-day, in some places, the Eskimos 
live in very nearly the same condition as 
formerly, their climate being so severe 
that white men have not settled among 
them nor interfered with their customs. 
They still roam about in summer, living 
in skin tents, or tuples, and in winter 
erecting snow and ice huts, or igloos (Fig. 
79). Their struggle is a hard one, for 
they not only have to battle against cold, 
but also to obtain their food amid great 
difficulties. In this they are aided by their dogs, which 
are doubtless domesticated wolves, and which, like their 
masters, are able to subsist upon a meat diet and with- 




Fig. 78. 

An Eskimo woman 
carrying her baby- 
in the sealskin 
hood on her back. 



PEOPLES 



93 




Fig. 79. 
Eskimo igloos in Baffin Land. 

stand the severe Arctic cold. Every Eskimo man has his 
team of dogs to draw his sledge over the frozen sea. 

Indians. — Indians were originally scattered over most 
of the country south of the Arctic Circle. This is indi- 
cated by the places that bear Indian names, as Narragan- 
sett, Erie, Niagara, Huron, Ottawa, Illinois, Dakota, 
Pueblo, and Sioux City. Some of the tribes were true 
savages; others, not so savage, may be classed as barba- 
rians. They raised " Indian corn " and tobacco, baked 
pottery, used tools and weapons made of stone, and lived 
in villages. 

These two classes of Indians had no settled homes, but 
roamed about. They generally followed regular paths, how- 
ever, moving from place to place with the season. Their 



94 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 



homes were skin tents commonly pitched in a group and form- 
ing a village. The women and children spent most of their 
time in the villages, near which were fields of Indian corn 
cultivated by the women. The men fished along the seashore, 
on the lakes, or on the rivers, and hunted in the forests or on 
the prairies. They travelled about through the woods, some- 
times along the rivers in their birch-bark canoes, sometimes 
on foot along narrow paths, or trails. 

















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IPStcH 



Fig. 80. 

The pueblo of Taos in New Mexico. Notice the ladders leading to the roofs 
upon which are the house entrances. 

In southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central 
America the aborigines were more civilized. Much of that 
region is arid ; but the Indians raised crops by irrigation, 
and built fortresses of stone and sun-dried brick (Fig. 80). 
These were erected partly as homes for protection from 
surrounding savages, and partly as storehouses for grain. 

The most noted among these Indians were the Aztecs, 
who occupied the city of Mexico and some of the neigh- 



PEOPLES 



95 



boring country. They 
had government and re- 
ligion much better devel- 
oped than the barbarous 
and savage tribes. They 
mined gold and silver 
and manufactured the 
metals into various arti- 
cles ; they wove blank- 
ets, and ornamented 
their pottery and their 
buildings in an artistic 
manner. Living the quiet 
life of the farmer, the 
Aztecs preferred peace 





Fig. 81. 
Indian blankets, woven by one of the 
tribes near the boundary line between 
New Mexico and Arizona. 



Fig. 82. 

Indian carrying a decorated 
pottery jar. 



to war, and a settled home to the 
nomadic life of the hunter. But 
even these Indians were not truly 
civilized ; they lacked many of the 
arts of civilization, as for instance, 
that of writing, though they, to- 
gether with other Indians, were able 
to convey their ideas by drawing 
pictures. 

While some tribes thus approached 
a state of civilization, the Indians, as a 
race, never became a powerful people. 
For this there are several reasons. In- 
stead of forming one great confederacy 
and living at peace with one another, 
they were divided into many tribes. 



96 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTU AMERICA 



Each tribe had a certain area over which it could roam and hunt ; 
but if it encroached upon its neighbors, war followed. Under 
these circumstances it was difficult for one tribe to advance to 
a much higher state of civilization than the others. 

The level nature of the country rendered this difficulty all 
the greater. Had the surface of North America been very 
mountainous, some tribes might have been so protected by 
surrounding mountain walls as to dare to devote themselves 

to other work than war. Then 
they might gradually have 
collected wealth and devel- 
oped important industries ; 
but the vast plains of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, which make 
up so much of the continent, 
and the extensive plains and 
low mountains of the East, 
allowed little protection. If 
any one tribe had built good 
homes on these plains, and 
collected treasures within 
them, the neighboring Ind- 
ians would have felt that a 
special invitation had been ex- 
tended to attack them. The 
Aztecs were continually in 
danger from this cause. However, the fact that they were 
partly protected by mountains and deserts, especially in south- 
ern Mexico, was one of the reasons why they were more civil- 
ized than the Indians of the northeast. 

Another serious obstacle to the advancement of the Indians 
was the fact that they possessed no domestic animals for use 
in agriculture. The horse, cow, ass, sheep, goat, and hog were 
unknown to them ; and, without these, farm work becomes the 
worst drudgery, because every product must be raised by hand. 
It is not surprising, then, that the men left the farming to the 
squaws, while they spent their time in war and in hunting. 




Fig. 83. 

Indian woman carrying her baby, or 
pappoose. 



PEOPLES 97 

Again, although there was much game, the supply was never 
sufficient to support a dense population for a long period. 
Even the scattered Indian population was obliged to wander 
about in search of it. This prevented them from living quietly 
and finding time for improvement. All these facts worked 
against the advancement of the Indians ; but they proved of 
great advantage to the whites, making it far easier than it would 
otherwise have been for them to obtain possession of America. 

The Spaniards. — The astonishment of Europe was 
great when it was proved that there were vast territories 
on this side of the Atlantic. America was pictured as 
containing all sorts of treasures, and European nations 
vied with one another in fitting out expeditions to take 
possession of them. 

The Spaniards naturally led, for they were then one of 
the most powerful nations of Europe and had sent out 
Columbus as their representative. Leaving Palos on his 
first voyage, he had come within reach of the trade winds, 
which carried him southwestward to one of the West 
Indies, a point much farther south than Spain itself. Find 
on a globe the point on our coast that is about as far north 
as Madrid. Had Columbus started from England, he 
would have sailed into the prevailing westerlies, instead of 
the trade winds ; and, although the distance is shorter, the 
voyage would have required a much longer time. Why ? 

The section reached by the Spaniards had a climate 
similar to that of their own country, and they easily made 
themselves at home there and soon came into possession 
of most of South America, Central America, Mexico, and 
southwestern United States. They had one advantage 
over the English and French who settled farther north : 
the portion of the continent that they discovered is so 



98 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

narrow that they easily crossed it, and thus enjoyed the 
privilege of exploring the Pacific coast also. It was be- 
cause of this fact that the Spanish race settled the western 
coast as far north as San Francisco. 

After robbing the Aztecs of immense quantities of gold and 
silver, the Spanish converted the natives to Christianity, and 
introduced many Spanish laws and customs. They cruelly 
mistreated the natives, killing many and enslaving others, and 
forcing them to work in the mines and fields. They almost 
completely exterminated the Indians who lived in the West 
Indies. While the invaders were able to conquer the semi- 
civilized Aztecs and the barbarians of the islands, they made 
very little progress in subduing the more savage tribes. To 
this day, in fact, there are tribes of Indians in Mexico and 
Central America that have never been conquered, and that 
frequently cause trouble. 

The French. — The French began their settlements in 
a very different quarter, being first attracted to our coast 
by the excellent fishing on the Newfoundland banks. 
Soon the fur trade with the Indians proved profitable, and 
the French took possession of Nova Scotia and the region 
along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. 

The value of the fur trade, and a desire to convert the 
Indians to Christianity, led the French far into Wisconsin 
and to the head waters of the Mississippi River. Making 
their way southward to the mouth of that river, they took 
possession of the whole Mississippi Valley (Fig. 84), and 
called it Louisiana in honor of their great king, Louis 
XIV. In order to hold this vast territory, they estab- 
lished a chain of trading posts and forts from the Gulf of 
Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. One of the most im- 
portant of these forts stood where Pittsburg now stands. 



PEOPLES 



99 



What special advantage had the French for reaching so 
much of the interior of the continent ? Why should they not 
have proceeded westward to the Pacific ? Many places in the 
St. Lawrence and Mississippi valleys still preserve French 
names, as Lake Champlain, Marquette in Michigan, La Salle 
in Illinois, St. Louis, and New Orleans. 

The English. — The Spanish and French left only a 
narrow strip along the Atlantic coast for other nations. 
Among those who attempted settlements were the Dutch 
in New York and the Swedes in Delaware. But the 
English, set- 
tling at various 
points along the 
coast, soon ob- 
tained the lead. 
They captured 
New York City 
(then called New 
Amsterdam) 
from the Dutch, 
and extended 
their settle- 
ments along 
most of the coast 
from Florida to 
Nova Scotia. 




Fig. 84. 

Map showing the claims of France, England, and 
Spain upon the territory of Central North Amer- 
ica in 1760. 



In several respects the portion that fell to the English 
seemed much less desirable than that held by the Spanish 
and French ; yet the English speaking race has managed, 
not only to retain this, but to add to it most of the posses- 
sions of the other two. At the present time, the control 
of the entire continent, with the exception of Mexico, 



L. tf c. 



100 



A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 






Central America, and a few small islands, is in the hands 
of either the United States or Great Britain. 

There are, of course, good reasons for this strange result. 
No doubt original differences between these three races is one 
cause ; but there are others also. In the case of the Spanish, 
the climate has been one factor; for in a large part of their 
territory the weather is too warm to produce energetic people. 
In very cold countries, as in the land of the Eskimos, so much 
labor is required iu merely obtaining food and shelter, that 
little time and strength are left for general improvement. 
The struggle is too severe to allow progress. 

In warm countries, on the other hand, the same effect is 
produced, but in the opposite way. So little energy is required 
to find sufficient food that the people do not need to exert 
themselves, and hence do not. By taking a few steps, the 
Central American can find bananas and other nourishing food 
at almost any season of the year ; why then should he work ? 
The people, therefore, lose the inclination to bestir themselves, 

or, in other words, become 
too lazy to improve their 
condition. 

Another reason why the 
Spaniards have not devel- 
oped is found in their 
relation to the Indians. 
Although robbing and en- 
slaving them, they at the 
same time married them 
freely, so that, in time, 
half-breeds have come to 
make up more than half the 
population. These half- 
breeds are an ignorant class, far inferior to the Spaniards them- 
selves, and so backward (Fig. 85) that they still follow many 
of the customs of the Aztecs. 

The French likewise intermarried with the Indians and 




Fig. So. 

A primitive Mexican cart with wooden 
wheels, such as can still he seen in that 
country. 



PEOPLES 101 

adopted some of their customs, although not to so great an ex- 
tent as the Spaniards. Their climate was, on the whole, more 
favorable than that of the Spanish; for, though cold in the 
St. Lawrence Valley, the temperature was conducive to effort. 
But one of their greatest difficulties arose from the fact that 
the few scattered settlers were unable to protect all of the vast 
territory to which they laid claim. 

As for the English, the temperate climate of their section is 
the best in the world for the development of energy. The 
warm summers allowed abundant harvests ; but the long, cold 
winters forced the settlers to exert themselves to store supplies 
for the cold season. Since it required only a reasonable amount 
of labor to obtain the necessities of life, time and energy were 
still left for improvement. 

In their treatment of the Indians, the English and French 
were less cruel than the Spaniards ; but, unlike both French 
and Spanish, the English would not intermarry with savages. 
Consequently, in the wars with the French, the English were 
not hampered by great numbers of half-civilized persons, and 
could act with more intelligence, speed, and force. Their rela- 
tion to the Indians, however, placed them at a disadvantage in 
one respect ; for, during the fights with the French, a majority 
of the Indians were allies to those with whom they had inter- 
married, and, hence, were friends to the enemies of the English. 

The fact that the English were hemmed in by forest-covered 
mountains on the west, and by the French and Spanish on the 
north and south, also proved an advantage ; for on that account 
they were kept close together, and were easily able to com- 
bine their forces when wars arose. 

These are some of the reasons why the English-speaking 
race has won its way on the continent against both Spanish 
and French. Spain has steadily lost ground, having recently 
given up Cuba and Porto Rico to the United States ; and France 
has had no claim upon the continent since 1803. The Spanish 
race still occupies Mexico and Central America, while French is 
even now spoken by many people in New Orleans, Quebec, and 
Montreal. 



102 



.1 GENERAL STUDY OF XORTH AMERICA 




Map to Show 

Distribution of Population. 

in 1790. 

SCALE OF MILES. 



pioneer houses and small villages. 



^j st'.'-icrs except Indians who 
T~ T ~] Scattered settlements, such as f 
r r airly -well settled. 

f-^? Most densely settled portion. More than 90 people living on 
every square mile. 

Fig. 86. 

Map to show the settled part of the 
United States in 1790. Notice the 
cities named ; each of these had over 
5000 inhabitants. Which are now 
among the great cities of the country ? 
What about Chicago ? 



thusiastic reports quickly 
drew hundreds of thou- 
sands after them. 

The westward advance 
pushed the frontier line 
on and on until the semi- 
arid plains of the West 
were reached. Then, in 
1848. the discovery of gold 
in California produced a 
wave of excitement that 
carried hosts of adven- 



Westward Migration. 
— After the Revolution- 
ary War, by which the 
Thirteen Colonies gained 
their independence from 
Great Britain, an active 
westward movement be- 
gan. For a long time 
the Appalachian Moun- 
tains had stemmed the 
tide of migration (Fig. 
86) . But at last numbers 
of pioneers found their 
wa} 7 , along the river val- 
leys, to the other side of 
these mountains. There 
they discovered fertile 
plains, free from rocks 
and woods, and ready for 
the plough, and their en- 






Fig. 87. 

A stage coach used three-quarters of a 
century ago to travel through the 
wilderness of western New York. 



PEOPLES 103 

turers across the Rockies to the Pacific coast. After this 
the western part of the United States was rapidly ex- 
plored and settled. 

Indian Reservations. — Through this movement the Indians 
found themselves driven from their hunting grounds, and their 
resentment toward the whites led to many a massacre. However, 
they were outnumbered by civilized people, and, in spite of their 
stealth, courage, and endurance, were soon a conquered race. 

It has been necessary to confine the Indians to certain regions, 
called Indian reservations, in various parts of the East and 
West. There are small ones in Maine, New York, and Florida, 
and larger ones in the West ; but the largest is Indian Terri- 
tory, just north of Texas. 

In collecting the Indians upon reservations it was intended 
to encourage them to adopt civilized customs, to build homes, 
and to cultivate the soil. For that purpose the government 
has placed Indian agents upon the reservations to supply the 
Indians with necessary articles, such as farming tools, seed, 
clothes, and, in time of need, food also. Often each Indian is 
assigned a small farm to cultivate as he chooses, and his chil- 
dren are sometimes forced to attend a school. 

While the plan has worked well in some cases, for the most 
part it has proved a dismal failure. The Indians have been 
roaming about for too many generations for all of them to be 
ready to settle down peaceably and toil at farming. Many of 
them are too lazy for this kind of work ; and, even after taking 
the trouble to prepare the ground and sow the seed, they some- 
times abandon their crops in order to hunt and fish. 

The government system of supplying them with necessaries 
encourages them in their shiftlessness, for they know that 
when winter comes they will not be allowed to starve. Other 
reasons for the failure are, unfortunately, dishonesty of the 
Indian agents in some cases, and also the failure of the govern- 
ment to carry out its agreement with the Indians. In other 
cases, the allotment of poor land to the Indians has caused 
trouble. We owe it to the red men to see that they are offered 



101 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

every chance to rise to civilization, and the reservation system 
has not led to that result. 

There are, of course, numerous exceptions, for many tribes 
and individuals have greatly profited from government aid. 
Some have shown themselves capable of a high degree of civil- 
ization, as is proved by the students in the Indian schools at 
Hampton, Virginia, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. A better sys- 
tem of treatment for the Indians is now being tried ; that is, 
to do away with reservations, to supply each Indian with a 
farm, and to force him to depend upon himself. 

Slavery. — While the Indians of the East were being 
killed in war and driven westward, negroes were being 
brought from Africa. There are now fully eight million 
blacks in the United States, which is nearly one-ninth 
of our entire population, and thirty times the number of 
Indians. 

Slavery was first introduced into America by the Span- 
iards, who made slaves of the Indians, and afterward 
imported negroes from Africa. The first negro slaves in 
the British colonies were brought to Virginia in 1619, but 
their number increased very slowly until the close of that 
century. The demand for cheap labor was partly supplied 
by criminals sent over from England, and by other immi- 
grants who gave their services for a few years in pay- 
ment for their passage across the sea. Many of these 
were men and women of good character, who became re- 
spectable citizens. Many others, however, were outcasts 
from society. 

As civilization in Virginia was developed, and slave labor 
was substituted for that of the " poor whites," the latter, often 
the descendants of the bond-servant of early days, sought 
refuge on the southern and western frontier. They became 



PEOPLES 



105 



the ancestors of a considerable portion of what are called the 
"white trash" now scattered through the Southern States. 
These people have been a woebegone, shiftless class, despised 
by other whites and often by the negroes themselves. Since 
slavery has been abolished, however, and the payment of 
wages has made labor more respectable in the South, these 
people have begun to advance. 

Negro slaves were brought to all the colonies, but 
they soon proved a much more profitable investment in 
the South than in the North. In New England the farms 
were small, the 
products were 
numerous and 
their cultivation 
required consid- 
er able skill. 
Moreover, the 
climate was se- 
vere for natives 
of tropical Af- 
rica. On the 
other hand, the 
Southern cli- 
mate was well suited to them ; and the simple routine 
work upon the great tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice plan- 
tations was such as they could easily perform. Accord- 
ingly, the number of slaves increased in the South, while 
slavery gradually disappeared from the North. 

When steam began to turn the factory wheels of Eng- 
land, the demand for cotton from America greatly in- 
creased ; and the invention of the cotton gin, in 1793, 
made its production far more profitable than before. On 




Fig. 
A negro group in the South. 



106 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

that account the slave-trade grew into an enormous indus- 
try, and slavery became apparently a necessary institution 
in the Southern States. Men, women, and children were 
bought and sold, like cattle and horses, and both their 
labor and their lives were in the control of their ownerSo 

Since slavery was abolished by the Civil War, the number 
of negroes has increased in the South, although many have 
migrated to the North and West. In two of the states, South 
Carolina and Mississippi, they outnumber the whites (p. 454), 
and they still perform most of the labor on the cotton, rice, 
and sugar plantations. 

The negroes are doubtless happier now than when slaves ; 
but in spite of the efforts to educate them on the part of the 
whites, and of some members of their own race, many still re- 
main densely ignorant. What shall be done for their elevation 
is one of the great problems of the present time. It should be 
remembered, however, that their ancestors were brought here 
against their will ; and it is now our duty to help educate and 
improve the race. Such schools as that at Hampton, Virginia, 
and Booker Washington's Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, prom- 
ise to be one means of elevating the negroes. 

Immigrants to America. — Europe and Asia, as well as 
Africa, have poured forth a stream of immigrants into this 
country. Our increase in population, from a little over 
three millions at the close of the Revolutionary War to 
over seventy-six millions at present, has been possible only 
as a result of this steady stream from abroad. Nearly 
every foreign nation is represented, and upon the streets 
of our larger cities may be heard the languages of most of 
the civilized peoples of the globe. 

The greater part of our immigrants has come from 
northern Europe, especially from the British Isles, Ger- 
many, and the Scandinavian peninsula (see table, p. 454) ; 



PEOPLES 107 

and great numbers of them have settled in the cities. 
More recently a flood of immigration from southern 
Europe has brought us less educated and less desirable 
people. At one time many Chinese threatened to come, 
and laws preventing their coming had to be passed. We 
have laws, also, excluding paupers, criminals, and laborers 
who are brought here by contract. To others the country 
is free, though many believe that very ignorant persons 
should be prevented from immigrating here. 

It has been our mission to welcome these strangers, and, 
in spite of their varying ideas, customs, and languages, to 
teach them the principles of a republican form of govern- 
ment, to educate them, and, welding them into an harmoni- 
ous body, to make them good citizens and true Americans. 
It is not strange if some mistakes have been made in the 
process. It is a task that no other nation has ever per- 
formed on so grand a scale. Nevertheless, the fact that so 
few of the many foreigners who settle among us desire to 
return to their native lands is proof that they have not 
been disappointed in their expectations ; and it suggests 
reason for a well-founded pride in the government of the 
United States, and a hope for its future. 

Review Questions. — (1) What factors determine climate? 
(2) Of what importance is climate? (3) Why are there no large 
trees in the cold North ? (4) Describe the vegetation there. (5) What 
animals live on the land there? (6) Tell what you can about each. 
(7) Why are there more animals in the sea? (8) What kinds live 
there? (9) How does the life of mountain tops resemble that of the 
frigid zones? (10) How do arid land plants protect themselves? 

(11) Tell what you can about the animals living in the arid lands. 

(12) W T hy should there be more life in the tropical zone? (13) Name 
some of the plants living there. (14) Name some of the animals. 
(15) How do they protect themselves ? (16) What can you say of the 
plants of the moist temperate zone ? (17) Of the animals? (18) Of 



108 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

the bison? (19) How does climate influence the cultivated crops? 
(20) The domesticated animals? (21) What cultivated plants and 
domesticated animals has North America supplied? (22) Describe 
the difficulties that the Eskimos encounter. (23) Give some examples 
of Indian names. (24) Describe the life of the savage and barbarous 
Indians. (25) Of the semi-civilized Aztecs. (26) What causes pre- 
vented the Indians from becoming more civilized? (27) Give a 
reason why the Aztecs were able to advance. (28) What winds aided 
Columbus to discover southern countries? (29) What advantage 
did their location in southern North America give the Spaniards? 
(30) How did the Spaniards treat the Indians ? (31) What attracted 
the French to America? Where did they settle? (32) What other 
nations settled in the East? (33) W'hat has been the fate of the 
Spaniards and French in America? (34) Why have the English- 
speaking people come into possession of the greater part of the 
continent? (35) What interfered with the westward migration of 
the English? (36) How was this migration finally brought about? 
(37) What effort has been made to care for the Indians? Why has 
it failed? (38) Tell about the beginnings of slavery in America. 

(39) Why was it more successful in the South than in the North ? 

(40) What is the condition of the negroes now? (41) Where do our 
immigrants come from ? (42) What is our mission toward them ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Examine some century and cactus plants. 
(2) Find some furniture made of mahogany or other tropical wood. 
'(3) Visit a greenhouse to see orchids. (4) Collect pictures of native 
plants and animals of North America. (5) Collect samples of differ- 
ent American woods. (6) What does the eagle signify as our national 
emblem ? On what coins is it found? (7) What have you read about 
the bison? About Indians? Write a story about each. (8) Explain 
more fully why domestic animals are necessary to civilized life. 
(9) Write a story about slavery times. (10) Do you know any of 
the negro melodies that were sung on the plantations? (11) Find 
out from how many different nations the fathers and grandfathers of 
your acquaintances have come. (12) Trace your own ancestry back 
as far as you can, in order to find out from what nations your ances- 
tors came, on both the father's and mother's side. 

For References, see page 439. 



VI. LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD 

TIME 

Latitude and Longitude 

Need of a Means for Locating Places. — You have doubt- 
less noticed that it has frequently been necessary to refer 
to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the 
Equator, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain 
places and the boundaries of the zones. But these lines 
are far apart, and there are many places between them to 
which reference must often be made. For instance, sup- 
pose we wished to state on what part of the earth London 
is situated ; how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a 
long time, it would be possible to describe just where this 
city is ; but cannot some more convenient way be devised ? 

The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in 
a large city. There are thousands of houses in the city, 
as there are thousands of towns and cities in the world. 
No one person knows who lives in most of them, and if a 
stranger were looking for a friend, he might have much 
trouble in finding him. 

The Streets of a City. — In this case the problem may be 
solved in a simple manner. A street running east and west 
may be selected to divide the city into two parts (Fig. 89). 
Any place north of this street is spoken of as being on the 
north side, and south of it as being on the south side. 
The streets to the north and south are numbered from 

109 



110 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d ; and South 1st, 

South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says that 

N0RTH he lives on North 4th Street, 

J l^yfH kd •— ' L si.^ J L one knows immediately that he 

-=j Ui tU y LJ LJU L y lyes on the north side, and 

^y R y UJz^y.^L that his house is on the 4th 

1 r" ,^-"-) f^-iV- 1 f^^Mr street from this central one. 

west Washington ave east But a city also extends a 

-i pssls; [ra^o — rs^, — ,p long distance east and west, 

— is — |Ss-*n ^ S-n|s^s-n I and we need to know on what 

irTnrTnnnr part of 4th street this house 

~l f^Ti F*\ r - 1 f^\ i — i"- is to be found. To answer 

SOUTH 

that question, another street 
,, , . . .. , .„ running north and south, and 

Map of apart of a city, to lllus- & ' 

trate the need of naming crossing the east and west 

ones, may be selected to divide 

the city into east and west parts. The streets on the two 

sides are numbered from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, 

West 1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 89). 

Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and 

East 3d streets, one knows not only that his home is 

north of a certain line, but east of another line. If the 

blocks, or the space between any two streets, are always 

the same, it will also be easy to tell the distance from each 

of the central streets to the house. 

This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, be- 
cause the people there know one another, and are able to direct 
strangers easily. Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme 
here given ; but many have a system of naming or numbering 
streets somewhat similar to this. 

If yon live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how 
your streets are named or numbered. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



111 



Distance North and South of the Equator {Latitude). — 

Places upon a globe are located in much this manner. 
For example, the equator, which extends around the 
earth midway between the poles, corresponds to the divid- 
ing street running east and west. The distance between 
the equator and the poles, on either side, is divided into 
ninety parts (Fig. 90), corresponding, we might say, to the 
blocks in a city. These, 
however, are each about "' " Po/ '- 

sixty-nine miles wide and 
are called degrees, marked 
with the sign °. 

In making maps people 
think of a line, or a cir- 
cle, extending around the 
earth sixty - nine miles 
north of the equator, and 
called a circle of latitude. 
Any point upon it is one 
degree (1°) north of the 
equator, or 1° North Lati- 
tude (abbreviated to N. 
Lat.). Similar lines are imagined 2°, 3°, and so on up to 
90°, or to the north pole. 

Since all points on any one of these circles are the same 
distance from the equator, and from the other circles of 
latitude, the lines are parallel ; and on that account they 
are called parallels of latitude. See a globe. 

The same plan is followed on the south side, places in 
that hemisphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.). 

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 
50th, or some other parallel north of the equator, he 




•^??20"S. Lat. 
*¥/23h°S. Lat. 

. y<K)°S. Lat. 

'Os^^^Z's^ GO^S. Lat. 

South r ■S. /*■ Lat. 

Fig. 90. 

The globe, showing the two hemispheres 
and some of the circles of latitude. 



112 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

knows how far it is north of the equator. San Francisco 
is close to the 38th parallel, Chicago close to the 42d, and 
St, Paul on the loth (Figs. 178 and 211). Knowing 
this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about two 
hundred and seventy-six miles, farther north than San 
Francisco, while St. Paul is 3°, or over two hundred miles, 
farther north than Chicago. 

Of course there are no marks upon the earth to show where 
these lines run, but they are of great use on maps, because they 
help us to locate places. Small maps and globes cannot well 
show the entire ninety parallels on each side of the equator, 
so that usually only every fifth or tenth one is drawn. Exam- 
ine some maps (such as Figs. 95 and 178), to see which ones 
are given. Near what parallel do you live ? 

In speaking of the seasons (p. 31) it was stated that 
on June 21 the vertical rays of the sun reached farthest 
north. The part of the earth which they reach is 23^° 
north of the equator, and is marked on the maps by the 
Tropic of Cancer (Fig. 90). The Tropic of Capricorn is 
the same distance south of the equator (Fig. 90). 

Knowing now the length of a degree, you can find the width 
of the tropical zone, both in degrees and in miles. What is it ? 
New Orleans is just north of the 30th parallel N. Lat. How 
far is it from the tropical zone ? 

On the day that the vertical rays of the sun reach far- 
thest north, the entire Arctic Circle is lighted by the sun 
at midnight. This circle is the same distance from the 
pole as the Tropic of Cancer from the equator, that is 
23^°. The Antarctic Circle is the same distance from the 
south pole. 

From this it is evident that we can easily find the lati- 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



113 



tucle of a given place by the help of these parallels, for 
latitude is the distance north or south of the equator. 

East and West Distances on the Earth (Longitude 1 ^ . — 
But how about distance east and west ? It is twenty-five 
thousand miles around the earth at the equator, and some 
means must be found for telling on the map how far 
places are from each other in these directions. 

Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; 
but this time they extend north and south from pole to 
pole (Fig. 91), and are 
called meridians, or lines 
of longitude. In the case 
of the city it makes little 
difference what north 
and south street is chosen 
from which to number 
the others. It is only 
necessary that a certain 
one be agreed upon. 

It is the same with 
these meridians. No one 
is especially important, 
as the equator is, and 
consequently different 
nations have selected dif- 
ferent lines to start from. In France the meridian ex- 
tending through Paris is chosen, in England that through 
Greenwich near London, and in America the one passing 
through Washington is sometimes used. But it is im- 

1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and 
west than in a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east 
and west, or long direction, longitude ; the north and south direction, 
latitude. 




Fig. 91. 

The earth, cut in halves along the Green- 
wich meridian, showing some of the 
meridians. The meridian 20° is usually 
considered the dividing line between 
the eastern and western hemispheres. 



114 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

portant that all people agree on some one, so that all maps 
may be made alike. On that account many countries start 
their numbering with the meridian which passes through 
Greenwich. The maps in this book follow that plan. 

In Greenwich is a building, called an observatory, in which 
there is a telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. 
As these heavenly bodies are of great help in finding the lati- 
tude and longitude of places, Greenwich seemed to the English 
a fitting place from which to begin numbering their meridians. 

Commencing with this me- 
ridian as 0° longitude, people 
measure off degrees both east 
and west of it, and think of 
lines as extending north and 
south toward the poles, as 
they do of circles of latitude 
running parallel to the equa- 
tor. Thus there is a merid- 
ian 1° west, another 2°, a 
third 3°, etc. Going east- 
ward, they number 1°, 2°, 3°, 

A view, looking down on the north _ J 

pole, to show how the meridians in the Same way. 

come to a point at the north pole. A lace Qn the g d me _ 

Notice that if the 0° meridian were . 

continued it would unite with the ridian west of Greenwich is 

meridian 180°. ^ tQ h& [r go Wegf . Lmgi _ 

tude (W. Long.) ; if on the 60th meridian, 60° W. Long. 
Any place on the 20th meridian east of Greenwich is in 
20° East Longitude (E. Long.). New York is 74° W. 
Long., while San Francisco is about 123° W. Long. Jeru- 
salem is about 35° E. Long. 

Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it 




Fig. 92. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 115 

can, by the aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in 
a great city. For instance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. 
and 105° W. Long. It is therefore far to the north and 
west of New Orleans, which is about 30° N. Lat. and 90° 
W. Long. 

Find the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on 
the map (Fig. 98). Notice also that only every fifth meridian 
is marked. Compare this with the map of New England (Fig. 
99). Since this map represents a smaller section of country, 
more meridians can be drawn upon it. 

The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to 
each other, as you can prove by measuring the distance be- 
tween them on a globe. 
But the meridians 
cannot be parallel on 
a globe, since they 
start from the poles 
and spread farther and 
farther apart until the 
equator is reached. 
Examine some of the 
maps in this book to 
see that the meridi- 
ans are not parallel, Fig. 93. 
while the lines of lati- An orange with a part of the peeling removed to 
tilde are show how the lines converge toward the poles, 

-,-., , as the meridians converge on the glohe. 

You can see how 

this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 93). The 
edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or 
equator, but come together at the ends, or poles, of the orange. 
A degree of longitude is a little over sixty-nine miles at 
the equator; but it decreases more and more as the poles 
are approached, until at the poles it is nothing, because all 
the meridians meet there at one point. Examine Figure 92 or, 
better still, a globe, to see that this must be true. 




116 a general study of north america 

Standard Time 

If you were to travel from New York to San Francisco, 
you would find on arriving there that your watch was 
three hours ahead of the clocks in that city. The reason 
is that the rotation of the earth, from west to east, causes 
the sun's rays to fall upon the Atlantic coast more than 
three hours sooner than upon the Pacific, so that when it 
is noon in New York, it is about nine o'clock in the morn- 
ing at San Francisco. 

Measuring from east to west, every place has a different 
time by the sun, and some years ago each city had its own 
sun or solar time. But when railways were built, con- 
necting many places, these differences became a source of 
constant annoyance to the traveller. As his watch showed 
the time of only one place, perhaps a city some distance to 
the east or west, he could not tell exactly when a train 
would leave, or when his meals would be served. 

In order to avoid all this trouble the country has been 
divided into belts, in each of which all the railways, and 
most of the towns, have the same time. Since this time 
is the standard for all, these belts are called the Standard 
Time Belts. The one in the extreme east is called the 
Colonial Belt; that next west of it, which includes New 
England, New York, and some of the other Eastern states, 
is called the Eastern Time Belt. What are the names of 
the others? (Fig. 94.) 

In travelling across the country from New York to San 
Francisco, one starts with his watch set at the standard 
time for the Eastern Time Belt. After a while he comes 
to a place where the time changes one full hour ; then he 
has Central Time. Going still farther west to the Moun- 



STANDARD TIME 



117 



tain Belt, the watch is again set back one full hour ; what 
is done when the Pacific Belt is reached ? In this way, 
only a few changes of the watch have to be made ; and, 
as long as one remains in a certain belt, he is sure of the 
time of day. 

Our study of longitude helps us to understand what 
determines the places for changing this time. When the 




STANDARD TIME IN THE UNITED STATES. 



Fig. 94. 

To show the standard time belts of the United States, — the actual boundaries 

being irregular, as you see. 

sun is rising at a certain point on a meridian, it is rising 
at every other point on that meridian. 1 

The earth makes one complete rotation every 24 hours, 
so that sunrise, noon, and sunset reach each of the 360 
meridians in the course of the day of 2-4 hours. Dividing 
360 by 24 gives 15 ; that is the number of meridians that 

1 It is understood, of course, that this does not apply to the frigid 
zone, where the sun does not rise at all during a part of the year, and 
where it does not set during another part of the year. 



118 A GENERAL STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA 

the sunrise or sunset pass over in a single hour. There- 
fore, if in one place, as at Philadelphia, on the 75th merid- 
ian, it is sunrise at six o'clock, it will be sunrise one hour 
later at all points just 15° west of this, or on the 90th 
meridian. 

This explains what has determined the boundary lines of 
the time belts. The time selected for the Eastern Belt is 
that of the 75th meridian ; for the Central Belt, that of 
the 90th meridian, which is just one hour later. What 
meridian is selected for the Mountain Belt ? (Fig. 94.) For 
the Pacific Belt ? Each of these meridians runs through 
the middle of the belt whose time it fixes, so that the east- 
ern boundary of the Central Time Belt is half-way be- 
tween the 75th and 90th meridians, that is West Longitude 
82^°; and the western boundary is half-way between the 
90th and 105th meridians, or 97^° West Longitude. 

In reality the railways do not change their time exactly 
according to these boundaries, for oftentimes the meridians 
extend through very unimportant points, or even cross the 
railways far out in open country. Instead of following the 
exact boundaries, they select well-known places, like Buffalo, 
Pittsburg, and Atlanta, at which cities the change is made 
from Eastern to Central time. Therefore, the boundaries 
which represent the places where the railways actually change 
their time are somewhat irregular, and not always on the 
proper meridian (Fig. 94). 

You see that the object of these Time Belts is to save 
annoyance, and that for most places the standard time is 
incorrect time. For instance, noon hj the standard time 
is not the real noon for any places in the United States 
excepting those along the 75th, 90th, 105th and 120th 
meridians. 



STANDARD TIME 119 

Questions : Latitude and Longitude. — (1) How may an east and 
west street be used in a city to locate houses ? (2) How may a north 
and south street be so used? (3) Make a plan of a city showing two 
central streets and others numbered from them. (4) What corre- 
sponds to the central east and west street in locating places upon the 
globe ? (5) Into how many parts is the distance between the equator 
and each pole divided ? (6) What is each of them called ? (7) What 
is meant by saying that a place is in 1° N. Lat. ? (8) How far apart 
are the circles of latitude ? (9) Why are these circles called parallels ? 

(10) What is S. Lat.? (11) Give the latitude of each of the tropics. 
(12) Of the Arctic and Antarctic circles. (13) What is a meridian ? 
(14) W r hy is it necessary to have them upon, maps? (15) Which 
meridian is most commonly chosen as zero ? Why that one ? (16) How 
high do the numbers of the meridians run? (Fig. 94.) (17) What 
is meant by saying that a place is in 3° E. Long. ? In 90° W. Long. ? 
(18) Show that meridians are not parallel. 

Standard Time.- — ■ (19) Explain why the time is continually chang- 
ing as one goes west. As he goes east. (20) How has this caused 
annoyance in travelling? (21) W r hat remedy has been found? 
(22) What are the names of the Standard Time Belts in the United 
States? (23) What is the difference in time between the belts? 

(24) Which meridians are used to fix the boundaries? Why these? 

(25) Show the boundaries on the map (Fig. 94). (26) AVhy is 
standard time really incorrect for most places ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find how the streets of Washington have 
been numbered and lettered. (2) W 7 hat is the width, in degrees and 
miles, of the north temperate zone? (3) What is the latitude and 
longitude of Boston ? Of Washington ? Of Chicago? Of your nearest 
large city ? (4) Find some cities that are on or near the 42d parallel 
of latitude. (5) What place is in 25° N. Lat. and 81° W. Long.? Near 
40° N. Lat. and 75° W. Long. ? (6) Make a drawing showing several 
of the meridians. (7) Visit a telescope and look through it. (8) Find 
the 100th meridian (on map Fig. 98) west of which much of the coun- 
try is arid. (9) Compare some of the parallels of latitude with the 
nearest isotherm (Fig. 63). (10) Where and how much would you 
change your watch in travelling from San Francisco to Chicago? 

(11) What is the difference in time between Baltimore and Denver? 

(12) Examine some railway time-tables to see how they indicate the 
changes in time. (13) What is the difference where you live between 
Standard Time and solar time ? 



VII. THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA 

The relief map, Fig. 5, and the map, Fig. 95, show the 
great Western highlands, the lower highland region of the 
East and the great trough between. What are the names 
of the large rivers that drain the different sections? In 
which direction does each flow, and into what waters does 
each empty ? In what part are most of the lakes found ? 
Why? Name and locate each of the large peninsulas, 
islands, bays, gulfs, and seas. Draw an outline map of 
the continent. Upon it locate the large cities. 

This great mass of land is under the control of different 
nations. The Dominion of Canada is a British colony and 
so are Newfoundland and Labrador, and some of the islands 
south of the United States. Name them. Greenland and 
Iceland are Danish colonies ; but the countries of Central 
America, Mexico, and the United States are independent 
nations. The United States also includes Alaska, the 
island of Porto Rico, and some islands of the Pacific. In 
addition to this, Cuba is under our protection. What is 
the name of the group of islands to which Cuba and Porto 
Rico belong ? 

We have already learned many facts about the conti- 
nent ; but now, in order to study it further, we shall need 
to take it up section by section. In doing this we begin 
with the United States, the most productive and most 
densely settled part of the continent. 

120 




Fig. 95. 



Part II 
THE UNITED STATES 



oXKc 



The climate and physiography of the United States 
vary greatly from place to place. What are some of the 
differences of climate ? Draw a sketch map to show the 
isotherms for January (Fig. 63, p. 72). For July (Fig. 
64). Draw a map also to show the rainfall (Fig. 46). 
Draw another map to show the plant zones (Fig. 65). 

Study the relief map carefully (Fig. 98) to see the areas 
of plains, plateaus, and mountains. What is the name of 
each division ? (Fig. 96.) On a sketch map of the United 
States write the names of the different physiographic 
divisions in their proper places (as in Fig. 96). Could 
you not make a sand or clay model of the United States, 
showing, in a general way, the greater highlands and 
lowlands ? 

Our country is so large, and so different in the various 
parts, that in order to study it in detail we must divide 
it into sections. The state boundaries might serve as a 
means of thus dividing the country ; but there are far too 
many of them. How many states are there ? Draw a 
sketch map of the country, and place upon it the bounda- 
ries and names of all the states. What is a state? (See 
First Book, p. 94.) Find out about your own state: its 

121 



122 



THE UNITED STATES 



government, its capital city, the name of the governor, 
and other important facts. 

In studying the different states it is convenient to group 
them into five sections and study each group by itself. 
The first states selected for this study will be the six in 
the northeastern part of the country, which are commonly 



r 



rs-5 



mm** 












Fig. 96. 

Physiographic map of the United States, giving the names of the principal 
mountains, plateaus, and plains. 

called the New England States. As you study each of 
these groups of states, a very important point to notice is 
the scale upon which the map is drawn. It is impossible 
to have all maps on the same scale — for instance, North 
America and the United States. One of the points that 
geography teaches is how to understand maps of different 
scales. 



For References, see page 439. 



105" I.ongittule 100' West 




Longitude 100° Went 




& 



VIII. NEW EXGLAXD 

Map Qcestioxs. — (1) Xame the states of this group. (2) What 
is the capital of each? (3) Where are the mountains? (4) Into 
what bay does the Penobscot River flow? (5) What large island just 
east of there? (6) Find three large lakes. In which state is each? 
(7) Where are the largest cities ? Why there ? (8) What cape about 
twenty-five miles north of Boston ? (9) What cape southeast of 
Boston? (10) Find Massachusetts Bay. (11) Find Cape Cod Bay. 
(12) What two large islands lie south of Massachusetts ? (13) What 
two bays near there ? (14) What large island lies south of Connecti- 
cut? (15) In what state is it? (See Fig. 121.) (16) What waters 
separate it from Connecticut? 




Fig. 100. 
One of the many New England lakes formed by the great glacier. 

Physiography. — Many facts in regard to Xew England 
are already familiar from what has been said in Part I. 
The sinking of the coast has made the shore line extremely 
irregular, thus forming many tine harbors. The great 
glacier, that came down from the north, has left its traces 

124 



i .-. 




NEW 

e N o l./\ rs O 

Modeled by Edwin E. Howell. £, 

*^> %-»*• Flk LiMtJUU 



Un^ 




Fig. 101. 

Belief map of New England. Describe the relief : (a) the location of the moun- 
tains, (b) the lowlands, (c) the lakes, (d) the drainage, (e) the nature of the 
coast line. 



126 THE UNITED STATES 

everywhere. By damming the streams and turning them 
from their courses, it has caused many lakes, falls, and 
rapids (Fig. 100). The rocky surface of the country, with 
bare ledges and boulder-strewn soil, and, indeed, the very 
soil itself, have also been caused by the glacier. For many 
years the edge of the ice sheet extended along the south- 
ern margin of New England ; and the moraine hills and 
sandy plains that it piled up now cover much of Cape Cod, 
Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket Island, and Long Island. 

While low near the coast, the land rises rapidly toward 
the north and west, and soon becomes a plateau crossed 
by river valleys whose bottoms are several hundred feet 
below the plateau top. The upland near the coast has 
been so cut by many valleys that the surface is studded 
with low hills. But in the west, the higher upland, known 
as the Berkshire Hills, is quite mountainous. 

Other mountains, in some cases where the rocks are 
hard, rise above the plateau. Some of these, like Mt. 
Monadnock in southern New Hampshire (Fig. 102), rise 
singly ; others, like the White Mountains of New Hamp- 
shire (Fig. 103), are in groups ; and still others, such as 
the Green Mountains of Vermont and the continuation of 
the White Mountains across northern Maine, form irregu- 
lar ranges. Many of the mountain peaks reach from 
three thousand to four thousand feet above sea-level ; but 
Mt. Washington in New Hampshire is more than a mile 
in height, and Mt. Katahdin in Maine (Fig. 118, p. 152) 
rises to a height of nearly a mile. 

The upland, or plateau, of southern New England is called a 
penej)lain, a word meaning almost a plain. It represents a re- 
gion of ancient mountains planed down to their very roots, then 
uplifted and cut by the rivers into its present irregular form. 



NEW ENGLAND 



127 



The mountains, and parts of the plateau, are too rough and 
rocky for much farming, so that this industry is mainly con- 
fined to the valleys ; but the scenery in this rugged region is 
magnificent. Describe some of the views that you would expect 
to see. Make an outline map showing the important rivers 
and lakes represented on Figure 99. Describe the location of 
each. Be ready to draw the map from memory. 




Fig. 102. 

A view across the upland of New England, with Mt. Monadnock rising in the 
background. Describe this view. 

Climate. — New England is so far north that its climate is 
cold in the northern part and the snows are heavy. This cold- 
ness is increased by the Labrador current, which makes the east 
winds cool in summer, and damp and chilly in winter. On the 
other hand, since the Gulf Stream (Fig. 59, p. 65) flows about 
a hundred miles from the coast of southern New England, that 
section has warm south winds and little snow in winter. 



The Forests 

Cutting the Timber. — In the days of the early settlers 
there was so much forest in New England that lumber 
was one of the first products sent back to England. Now, 



128 



THE UNITED STATES 



where the soil is fertile, most of the woods have been 
cleared away ; but large sections in northern Maine, New 
Hampshire (Fig. 103), and Vermont, as well as parts of 
the three southern states, are still covered with timber. 
Standing on the summit of Mt. Katahdin (Fig. 118), for 
instance, one sees only a vast wilderness of trees in all 
directions. The nearest cultivated land is twenty-five 
miles to the east ; but the forests stretch much farther 
away to the north and west. 




Fig. 103. 

The forest-covered slopes of a portion of the White Mountains of New 
Hampshire. 

Winter is the busy season in this wilderness, for at that 
time men go into the forests to cut the timber. Lumber- 
ing in Maine is an interesting occupation, but it involves 
so many hardships that a lumberman is said to become an 
old man after a few years of service. 

It is often necessary to work when the temperature is far 
below zero. The swamps, which are numerous, and in summer 
almost impassable, are then frozen. At that season, also, the 



NEW ENGLAND 



129 



snows have levelled over the boulders and fallen trees so that 
heavy sleds, loaded with logs, may be drawn through the woods. 
Usually fifty men or more are necessary to a logging camp. 
With axes in hand, 
they go through 
the woods, cutting 
all the trees that 
are large and sound 
enough for good 
lumber. These are 
cut down, the limbs 
chopped off, and 
the logs dragged 
by horses to the 
banks of the near- 
est stream. The 
men go forth early 
in the moruing and 
work until late in 
the evening, eating 
and sleeping in log 
cabins (Fig. 105). 
Their beds are 
broad shelves of 
rough boards cov- 
ered with boughs 
from the spruce and balsam trees, and the camp is often so 
small that they must lie side by side with scarcely room to turn. 

Floating the Logs to the Mills. — When the snow melts 
in the spring, the cutting is over and another busy season 
begins. The logs that are ready are whirled away by the 
stream current, now swollen by the melting snows ; but 
frequently even this flood of water is not sufficient to 
carry them. To provide against that difficulty, dams are 
placed across the streams, or at the outlet of lakes, to store 




Fig. 104. 
Lumbermen in the Maine woods. 



130 TIIE UXITED STATES 

water for use when needed. Immense numbers of logs 
are floated, or " driven." down stream, forming what the 
lumbermen call a " log drive." 

The work of driving the logs down stream is a very exciting 
one. Eocks and shoals often check them in their course ; and, 
as soon as one gets caught, others are held back by it, so that, 
if the jam is not speedily removed, the entire stream may soon 
become blocked, and all the logs above be prevented from float- 
ing down. Such a condition is called a log jam (Fig. 105), and 
it is the business of the men to prevent it by keeping the logs 
moving along in the river, and by freeing any that may become 
lodged. To do this, they must often wade into the icy water 
and ride upon the logs. It is common to see a man glide along 
on a single log, clinging to it by means of the sharp spikes in 
his boots, balancing himself with a long pole, and jumping 
from log to log, as a squirrel springs from tree to tree. The 
men are often wet from head to foot, and sometimes one is 
thrown into the water and drowned. 

Sawmills and Paper-mills. — Some of the logs are stopped 
near waterfalls far up stream and there sawed into boards, 
laths, shingles, etc. ; but most of them are carried as far 
as the current will take them, even down to the river 
mouths. These places are natural sites for large towns 
and cities, because there the logs must be changed to 
lumber and various articles, which require much work 
and man}' men. 

"Where the current of the Penobscot will carry the logs 
no farther, that is, where the ocean tide checks the river 
current, the large city of Baxgoe has grown up, since 
ocean vessels may come to this place to carry off the lum- 
ber (Fig. 105). The drives of the Kennebec and Andros- 
coggin are stopped at the sawmills in several cities along 
those rivers, as Lewistox, Auburn, and Augusta, the 



NEW ENGLAND 



131 




Fig. 105. 

A group of small pictures to illustrate lumbering. A and B show logging 
camps ; in D logs are being drawn to the frozen stream ; E and F are pic- 
tures of two log jams ; and C shows a vessel loading lumber from the piles 
of boards on the wharf near the sawmill. 

capital ; but some are carried down as far as Bath, which 
is noted for its ship building. On the wharfs of Port- 
land, the largest city in Maine, are immense quantities 
of boards ready to be shipped away to be made into boxes, 
barrels, doors, and hundreds of other articles. 



132 THE UNITED STATES 

Another important use of forest trees is to make paper, 
for much of the paper commonly seen — as newspaper and 
wrapping paper — is now made of wood. The wood is 
chopped up by a machine, and the chips are soaked in a 
vat of acid until they become soft like wet paper, forming 
a palp. This, after some further treatment, is then pressed 
between heavy rollers into thin sheets, which, when dried, 
form paper ready for market. One does not often think 
when reading the news, or wrapping a package, that the 
paper in his hands may once have been part of a live tree 
in the forest, perhaps in the woods of Maine. 

Paper-mills are found at Bangor, Augusta, and other 
cities in New England. However, Holyoke, the greatest 
paper-making city in New England, is situated far away 
from the forests in the midst of busy cities in Massachu- 
setts. There the pulp is made, not of wood, but of rags, 
which make a finer grade of paper. The neighboring 
cities guarantee a large supply of the necessary rags. 

Maple Syrup and Sugar. — Among the trees in the forests of 
northern New England is one kind called the sugar maple. It 
is very common in Vermont, although it grows in many other 
states also, as in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Its sap, 
unlike that of most trees, is sweet ; and if one bores a hole 
through the bark in early spring, when this liquid is moving 
through the trees most rapidly, it will ooze forth. 

Men secure the sap by boring into the trees, inserting spouts 
in the holes, and catching the fluid in pails ; and some farmers 
have regular sugar maple groves. The sap is changed into 
maple syrup and sugar by boiling, which causes evaporation of 
the water. On some farms there are special buildings, fitted 
out with evaporating pans, where syrup is made and bottled 
for sale. Near these are sugar maple groves; but in many 
cases the boys and men go into the woods for the sap. 



NEW ENGLAND 



133 



The Rocks 

There are three kinds of stone that are especially valu- 
able in New England, namely, granite, marble, and 
slate, each of which is quarried in large quantities. 

Granite. — Many of the hills and even mountains, such 
as Mts. Washington and Katahdin, are almost solid 
granite ; but this is not often quarried, because it is too 
difficult to draw the heavy stone from the mountains to 




Fig. 106. 
A granite quarry near Gloucester, Mass. 

places where it is needed. The quarries have generally 
been located close to cities, or near the sea where the stone 
may be cheaply sent away by ship. One of the oldest 
quarries in the country is at Quincy, near Boston (Fig. 
117), and buildings made of Quincy granite over two hun- 
dred years ago may still be seen in Boston. Other quar- 
ries are found in and near Gloucester, Massachusetts, at 
Concord, New Hampshire, and along the coast of Maine. 

Beds of stone have cracks, called joints,, extending through 
them. These aid greatly in quarrying ; for, in splitting out 



134 THE UNITED STATES 

large blocks, the quarrymen need only to drill holes, and then, 
with gunpowder, blast or break the granite from one joint to 
the next. Smaller pieces are obtained by drilling holes into 
the large blocks and breaking them apart by driving in wedges. 
Since the stone is so heavy, derricks are used to move it 
about (Fig. 106). As more and more stone is removed, the 
quarry becomes a deep and open pit, from the bottom and 
sides of which the stone is blasted out. 

Much of the granite is used, for paving-stones in the 
city streets, where heavy wagons are constantly passing. 
For that purpose, large blocks are split into halves, these 
into smaller halves, and so on until the proper size 
is reached. Other large blocks are loaded into boats at 
the wharf and carried to Boston, New York, or even as 
far as New Orleans, where they are used as curbstones, 
blocks for buildings, and for other purposes. Several 
of the government buildings at Washington are made of 
New England granite. 

One of the principal uses of granite is for monuments, 
columns, and other ornamental work. The stone is well 
suited for this purpose because of its beautiful color, which 
varies in different quarries, being gray, almost white, 
bluish, or distinctly red. 

For ornamental work it is often given a polish. After being 
chipped as smoothly as possible with chisels, the stone is placed 
in a frame and then further smoothed by grinding sand against 
it by machinery. Finally, by grinding it with other hard sub- 
stances of finer grain, it is made still smoother, like glass, and 
thus given a bright polish. 

Statues, bunches of grapes and other ornamental forms, are 
cut out of this hard rock merely by chisel and hammer, the 
workmen chipping off bits here and there until the desired 
form is chiselled out. 



NEW ENGLAND 



135 



Marble. — This stone is so much softer than granite 
that it may be sawed without being blasted. The most 
noted marble quarries in this country are near Rutland, 
Vermont, where much of the stone is white, though some 
of it is streaked with blue. In other places, as in Ten- 
nessee, the colors are different and often very beautiful. 

Marble is too soft for paving stones, but is much used 
for buildings, statues, and monuments, the Rutland marble 




Fig. 107. 

A view in one of the marble quarries near Rutland, Vermont. Notice the der- 
ricks, by the aid of which the heavy blocks are raised out of the deep pits. 
Some of the large blocks are also seen. 

being one of the most common headstones in the ceme- 
teries of the East. Like granite, it may be given a high 
polish. Some of the most highly prized marble is so 
banded and variegated that, when polished, it makes a 
beautiful ornamental stone for interiors of cathedrals and 
public buildings. 



136 THE UNITED STATES 

White marble has been used for many centuries for making 
fine statues ; in fact, long before the time of Christ, the Greeks 
built the marble Parthenon upon the Acropolis of Athens, and 
cut marble statues, such as that of the Venus of Melos, which 
have become famous on account of their marvellous beauty. 

Slate. — Slate rock is quarried in several parts of New Eng- 
land, as in eastern Maine and western Massachusetts and Ver- 
mont. It is also obtained in Pennsylvania. The value of slate 
is due largely to the fact that it splits, or cleaves, so easily that 
it is readily broken into thin slabs with a smooth surface. In 
this way it is made into roofing slate and school slates ; from 
it also are made slate pencils, slabs for wash basins, etc. 

Fishing 

Still another raw product of New England is fish. 
When the country was first settled, great numbers of vari- 
ous kinds, especially mackerel, halibut, and cod, were 
found close to the shore. Such names as Cape Cod, Hali- 
but Point, and Bass Rock, given to places on the coast, 
indicate this. Find the first of these. Provincetown, 
on this cape, is still engaged in the fishing industry. 

Fish supplied the first settlers with one of their chief 
foods, and the fishing industry soon became of importance. 
You will remember (p. 98) that it was the fishing which 
first attracted the French to the American coast ; and they 
still retain the right to fish along the Newfoundland shore. 

Near the coast, fish are now much less abundant ; but 
since they are still found farther from the shore, hundreds 
of vessels and thousands of men are engaged solely in 
catching them. Gloucester, which is a centre for that 
industry, is the greatest fishing port in the United States 
(Fig. 108) ; but Boston and Portland also have an 
important fish trade. 



NEW ENGLAND 



137 



Mackerel. — Mackerel are obtained in spring and sum- 
mer. They swim together, and in such numbers — in 
schools, as fishermen say — that they make a great com- 
motion in the water. The fishermen, who are cruising 
about in search of the fish, sail in swift, two-masted ves- 
sels, called schooners. When they sight a " school," they 
spring into their great seine boats, drop a large seine, or 
net, into the water, and endeavor to draw it around the 
" school." Then the seine is drawn in, forming a pocket 
and entrapping the fish. In this pocket enough fish are 




Fig. 108. 

A view in Gloucester harbor, showing the fishing schooners, the wharves where 
the fish are landed, and the buildings in which they are stored. 

sometimes obtained to fill hundreds of barrels. Some 
are sold fresh, others are salted and sold as salt mackerel. 

Halibut and Codfish. — The method of fishing described 
above is similar to that which the Disciples of Christ used 
in the Sea of Galilee. But fishing for halibut and cod is 
very different. This is carried on in winter as well as 
summer, and the vessels go from Gloucester even as far as 
Greenland and Iceland, although most of them fish off 
the New England and Newfoundland coasts. 

Halibut are very large, often weighing more than a 



138 



THE UNITED STATES 



man ; and they are caught upon lines, generally a single 
one at a time. Codfish may be captured in the same 
manner, though more commonly a trawl is used (Fig. 
109). This consists of a number of hooks hanging from a 
single long line, all lowered into the water together and 
left there for hours. The fish bite at the suspended hooks, 
and in this way many are caught at one time. 

This kind of fishing is dangerous because the men must ven- 
ture out in small, flat-bottomed boats, called dories, to take the 
fish off the trawls. While they are busy a storm may arise, or 
a heavy fog come up, and prevent their return to the vessel. 




*$&%&? 




Fig. 109. 
Cod fishing by means of a trawl. Tell what you see in this picture. 

They are then left in open boats far out upon the ocean. Every 
year dozens of Gloucester fishermen are lost in this manner. 

As in the case of mackerel, codfish are sold either fresh or 
salt. In order to salt, or cure them, they are split open and 
cleaned, soaked in barrels of brine, and then dried upon the 
wharf. Sometimes the bones are removed, the skin stripped 
off, and the flesh torn into shreds and packed into boxes as 
boneless cod. Either the salted or boneless cod may be seen in 
almost any grocery, and much of it comes from Gloucester. 



NEW ENGLAND 



139 



Other Ocean Foods. — Traps, or iveirs, are also set for fish. 
They are placed along the shore, and. many kinds of fish, such 
as shad, salmon, and bass, swim into them and are then unable 
to find their way out. Lobster fishing is also carried on, espe- 
cially on the coast of Maine. A lobster trap, made of wood and 
weighted with stone, is lowered to the bottom, where the lobster 
lives, crawling around among the rocks and seaweed. A fish 
head for bait is inside the trap, and the lobster crawls in to get 
it ; but he is so stupid that he is rarely able to find his way out. 




Fig. 110. 
A fish weir at Bar Harbor, Maine. The large buildings are summer hotels. 

Clams, found along many parts of the New England coast, 
live buried in the mud flats which are exposed to view at low 
tide. At such time boys and men dig these shell fish out, as a 
farmer digs potatoes from a hill. 

Agriculture 

So much, of New England is hilly or mountainous, and 
so strewn with boulders, that farming is not so extensive 
an industry as in many other parts of the country. By 
no means all the food that is needed can be raised in this 
section, much grain and meat having to be brought from 
the Mississippi Valley. And since the southern portion 
of New England is thickly dotted with cities, where the 
people are engaged in other occupations, there is a ready 
market for whatever food the farmers can supply. 



140 



THE UNITED STATES 



Each farm usually has a small orchard and produces 
hay and grain which are fed to cattle and horses, or sold 
near by. All the farmers keep a few hens and sell the 
chickens and eggs, and some make a business of raising 
hens, turkeys, and ducks. One of the occupations of 
the farmers is truck farming, which means that various 
kinds of vegetables, as tomatoes, sweet corn, potatoes, 
cucumbers, cabbages, and celery, are carefully cultivated, 
and these, together with milk and eggs, are sent to the 
nearest town to be sold. The farmer often takes them 




Fig. 111. 
A view on a Massachusetts farm, showing some fine hreeds of milk cows, 

himself and sells them from house to house, thus secur- 
ing higher prices than if he sold them to a storekeeper. 
Why? 

Strangers travelling through New England, upon see- 
ing the hilly surface and rocky soil, are often puzzled to 
understand how, from such small farms, the owners can 
earn enough to build such large houses and barns, to fur- 
nish their homes so well, and to have so many books and 
pictures. But the excellent markets in the cities near at 
hand afford the explanation. 



NEW ENGLAND 



141 



Where the farms are so far away from the cities that it is 
impossible to drive to them, the profits are less ; but special 
arrangements are made for the marketing of milk. So much 
of this is needed in the large cities that special cars, carrying 
nothing but cans of milk, are run from far out in the country. 
Also a great deal of milk is made into butter and cheese, some- 
times on the farm, but much more commonly at factories, or 
creameries, where the work is done by machinery. 



Hm 


















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W ^BESSf^"'' 


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: '"' "• '-*.-. 










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1 



Fig. 112. 
A New England farmhouse and barn. 

In some parts of New England, where the soil is very poor 
and no market is near, farming has been so unsuccessful that 
many farms have been abandoned, orchards are grown up with 
weeds, and houses and barns are tumbling down. This is 
especially true in the more hilly parts of New England. 



Manufacturing 

When the Puritans settled New England it was very 
expensive to bring from over the sea the articles that 
they needed. Nevertheless, at first they imported not 
only furniture and tools, but even wood for the interior 
of houses and bricks for the walls, fireplaces, and chim- 
neys. Even now, in some of the older New England 



142 



THE UNITED STATES 



buildings, one sees doors and rafters that came from across 
the ocean man} 7 generations ago. 

Very soon, however, the settlers began to make for 
themselves such articles as shoes, cloth, and lumber. Thus 
manufacturing began early in this region, and the indus- 
try was greatly aided by the water power, caused by the 

glacier. It was also 
aided by the many 
lakes. These serve as 
reservoirs from which, 
even during times of 
drought, a steady sup- 
ply of water is se- 
cured for the falls and 
rapids. 

Many mills and fac- 
tories sprang up near 
the coast, and later in 
the interior, and thus 
New England soon be- 
came the principal 
manufacturing section 
of the whole country. 
Its many large cities 
owe their existence 
chiefly to this indus- 
try. Hundreds of arti- 




Fig. 113. 

A waterfall that supplies power to some 
factories iu one of the smaller manufac- 
turing towns of New England. 



cles are made, those composed of cotton, wool, leather, and 
metal being the most important. 

It may seem strange that this should be the case, since 
none of these raw materials are extensively produced in 
New England. But the abundant waterfalls furnished such 



NEW ENGLAND 143 

excellent power that it paid to bring the raw materials 
there to be manufactured. Therefore, chiefly on account 
of its water power, manufacturing developed in New Eng- 
land ; and the people learned the art so well that factories 
were later built, even where there was no water power. 
This is true in Boston, for instance, where steam power 
is used. Nowadays the location of a mill near an impor- 
tant railway, or near some other good shipping point, is a 
more important matter than its location near water power. 



Fig. 114. 

A group of factories clustered on the bank of a stream which supplies water 
power. (Bellows Falls, Vt.) 

Cotton Manufacturing. — There are about four hundred 
cotton mills in New England, making such articles as 
sheets, towels, stockings, underwear, thread, string, hand- 
kerchiefs, and gingham and calico dress goods. As many 
as twelve hundred persons are frequently employed in a 
single mill, perhaps three-quarters of whom are women, 
and they may consume from sixty thousand to seventy 
thousand pounds of cotton per day. Most of the cotton 
is brought from Texas and other Southern States ; but 
some of it comes from Egypt and other foreign countries. 



1-14 THE US IT ED STATES 

The cotton arrives in bales, weighing about five hundred 
pounds each, and is made into cloth by machinery in the follow- 
ing manner : First the dirt, small sticks, etc., are removed. 
Then the cotton fibres of various lengths are combed out 
straight and "well mixed "with one another. After that they 
are pressed into thin, gauzelike sheets. These are gradually 
drawn and twisted into threads, and then wound upon spindles 
and taken to the looms for weaving. 

Cotton cloths are nothing more than such threads woven 
together, those that extend lengthwise of the piece being called 
the warp, and those across it, the woof. An ordinary piece of 
calico has a warp of perhaps twelve hundred threads, while a 
wide piece of cloth, such as a sheet for a bed, may contain as 
many as twenty-five hundred. Stripes are made by coloring 
the threads differently, and then, before the weaving begins, 
by carefully arranging them according to some design. 

Wool Manufacturing. — Wool is cut, or sheared, from 
sheep, and much of that which is manufactured into cloth 
in New England is obtained from Ohio and other states 
farther west. Large quantities are also imported from 
Australia. 

After being sheared from the sheep, the wool is washed and 
freed from burs, sticks, etc. Then it is untangled and combed 
out straight, after which it is twisted into yarn, much as cot- 
ton is twisted into thread. The yarn is woven into cloth for 
men's suits and overcoats, and also for cloaks, skirts, under- 
wear, blankets, stockings, carpets, and dozens of other articles. 
Most, if not all, of the garments which you are wearing are 
either made of wool or cotton, or of the two mixed together. 

The cities extensively engaged in the manufacture of 
either cotton or woollen cloth, or both, are, in Maine, 
Biddefoed, Lewistox, Auburn, and Augusta, the 
capital ; in Xew Hampshire, Manchester, Nashua, and 



NEW ENGLAND 145 

Dover ; in Massachusetts, Lowell and Lawrence on 
the Merrimac River, Pittspield in western Massachu- 
setts, and Fall Riyer, New Bedford, and Taunton in 
the southern part ; in Rhode Island, Pawtucket, Woon- 
socket, and Providence (Fig. 117), which is the second 
city in size in New England, and has the largest cotton 
factory in the world. 

Leather Manufacturing. — Boot and shoe making is 
carried on in a number of cities, though the most impor- 
tant are Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton in Massachu- 
setts. Leather is made from the hides of animals, such 
as cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and hogs. After the hair 
is removed, the hides are taken to tanneries, where they 
are soaked in a liquid to make them durable. 

Some of the tanneries are situated near forests, as in Michi- 
gan, where there are many hemlock trees, whose bark produces 
the tannic acid for tanning. Others are in the mountains of 
North Carolina, where a kind of oak grows from which tannic 
acid is made. Some of the tanneries of New England are also 
near the forest; but many, as those at Salem, near Lynn, are 
so far away that the bark, as well as the hides, must be brought 
a long distance to them. 

In other tanneries, chemicals are used in place of the tannic 
acid from hemlock or oak bark. In a single tannery near 
Boston, where sheep skins are tanned, from thirty thousand to 
forty thousand skins are used each week. 

After being thus prepared, the leather is brought to the fac- 
tories and cut up (Fig. 115), one machine cutting out soles of a 
certain size, a second tops, a third tongues, etc.; these parts 
are then sewed or nailed together and the shoes are soon fin- 
ished. As in the case of cotton and wool manufacturing, nearly 
all the work is done by machinery, each person caring for one 
or more machines and performing the same simple task day 
after day. 



146 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 115. 

Some small pictures of a shoe factory, showing the men and women at work 
making shoes. Tell what you see in each. 

Besides boots and shoes, leather is made into many 
other articles, as book bindings, harnesses, pocket-books, 
and bicycle saddles. Can you not name some others ? 

Metal Manufacturing. — On account of the water power, 
New England early became engaged in manufacturing 



NEW ENGLAND 147 

metals into various articles ; and, although steam now 
largely takes the place of water, these industries are still 
very extensive, especially in the three southern states. 
Since almost no coal and iron are produced in this section, 
these two materials must be shipped from other states. 
Therefore, large, heavy objects that require much metal 
and coal are not usually made. 

The lighter articles, as jewelry, clocks, needles, cutlery, 
tools, and firearms, that require a high degree of skill, 
are the chief articles manufactured from metal in New 
England. For instance, Worcester (Fig. 117), near 
Boston, is noted for its manufacture of wire and iron 
goods, besides envelopes, boots, and shoes ; Providence 
manufactures great quantities of jewelry ; New Haven, 
is noted for hardware and firearms ; Bridgeport manu- 
factures carriages, sewing machines, etc. ; Hartford, 
at the head of steamboat navigation on the Connecticut 
River, and Springfield, farther north in Massachusetts, 
both produce firearms, cars, and bicycles. Fitchburg is 
also engaged in metal manufacturing. 

Near Boston, at Waltham, the American Watch Company 
has an immense factory where twenty-one hundred watches 
are made every day (Fig. 116). About twenty-four hundred 
persons, more than half of whom are women, are employed 
there, receiving $100,000 a month in wages. Great numbers of 
clocks and watches are made in Waterbury, and jewelry and 
cutlery at Meridejst, Connecticut; and in hundreds of smaller 
cities, towns, and villages in New England there are factories 
and mills of various sorts. Also some of the cities occupied 
in cotton and woollen manufacturing, such as Fall River, 
Lowell, and New Bedford, are engaged in the manufacture 
of iron and other metals. In travelling through the southern 
portion of New England, one sees busy factories at every hand. 



148 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 116. 

The Walthani watch factory. The two middle pictures (C and D) show the 
crowds of workers leaving the factory at noon. 



Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 

The Large Cities. — All this manufacturing calls for an 
immense amount of cotton, wool, leather, metals, coal, 
and food ; and most of these products come from outside 
New England. It is not strange, therefore, that there are 
many cities on the coast. For instance, Portland (Fig. 
117), the largest city in Maine, has an excellent harbor, 
and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway, 



NEW ENGLAND 149 

which runs through Canada, so that in winter, when the 
St. Lawrence River is frozen over, it is a shipping point 
for Canadian goods. New Haven, the largest city in Con- 
necticut, Providence (Fig. 117), the largest in Rhode 
Island, and Boston, the greatest in New England, are 
all on the seacoast. 

The seacoast of New Hampshire is very small, and the largest 
city, Manchester, engaged in manufacturing, is inland near 
some falls in the Merrimac River ; but on the coast is the impor- 
tant city of Portsmouth. Vermont has no seacoast. Its largest 
city, Burlington, engaged in lumbering and quarrying, is on 
Lake Champlain, and has much trade with Canada. 

Boston and Vicinity. — The most important of all the 
New England cities is Boston, which is fifth in size in the 
United States. It is itself a great manufacturing centre, 
being engaged in most of the industries already named, 
and in making clothing particularly. About it, and but a 
few miles away, are many large cities and towns in which 
also are large manufactories (Fig. 117). In addition, 
these towns serve as places of residence for many of the 
business men of Boston. 

Among these the largest are Cambridge and Somerville, 
(Fig. 117), which are extensively engaged in meat packing, 
machine manufacturing, printing, and the making of musical 
instruments, soap, and many other articles. 

Other cities near Boston are represented on Figure 117. 
Among these are Chelsea and Malden, each of which is en- 
gaged in manufacturing rubber goods and other articles. Not 
far from Boston is Salem, which in the early days was even 
more important than Boston. Since its harbor is too shallow 
for the deep ships of the present time, this city has lost much 
of its commerce, which is now carried on in Boston. Notice in 
Figure 86 that Salem was one of the large cities in 1790. 








Fig. 117. 

Boston and vicinity. Also small maps of Providence, Portland, and Worcester. 
Notice the steamship and railway lines converging at Boston. Also the number 
of cities near Boston. The reservoirs near Worcester are used to store water for 



NEW ENGLAND 151 

The great size of Boston is due largely to its excellent 
harbor (Fig. 117) and its central location. Many railway 
lines reach out from the city toward all parts of the coun- 
try, while numerous steamship lines connect Boston with 
all important points along the coast, and with foreign 
countries (Fig. 117). 

The port of Boston is second in importance in the United 
States. Raw materials are sent there in great quantities 
for distribution among factories, and the finished goods 
are shipped all over the world. Also much grain and 
meat for food reach Boston from the West, and from there 
are distributed among the smaller cities, or shipped to 
foreign countries. These, in return, send such articles 
as coffee, tea, and bananas, which are needed in New 
England. 

Boston and vicinity have been important from the beginning 
of our history. There, at the commencement of the Revolution- 
ary War, occurred the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's Bide, 
and the Battle of Bunker Hill. The vicinity of Boston is also 
noted for its literary associations. Harvard College, the oldest 
in the United States, was founded in 1636 at Cambridge, 
three miles from Boston. Yale College, at New Haven", was 
established sixty-five years later, in 1701. Longfellow, Lowell, 
Holmes, and Agassiz were professors at Harvard; and Haw- 
thorne, Emerson, Thoreau, and Whittier lived near by. What 
writings of these men have you read ? . 

Summer Resorts 

New England is so extensively engaged in manufacturing 
and other forms of business, that immense numbers of people 
dwell in cities, where, during most of the year, they are closely 
confined in noisy factories, or in offices and stores. To these, the 
wooded mountains, the silvery lakes (Fig. 100) and rivers, the 



152 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 118. 
Katahdin Lake, Maine. Mt. Katahdin rises in the background. 

green valleys, and the rocky seacoast offer such attractions that 
each summer tens of thousands run away from town for a week, 
or even for months, to enjoy their vacations at these places. 

They go to the green slopes of the beautiful Berkshire Hills 
and Green Mountains, or climb about among the rugged peaks 

of the White 
Mountains to en- 
joy the magni- 
ficent scenery 
(Fig. 103). Many 
plunge into the 
woods of Maine 
or northern New 
Hampshire, to 
hunt and fish, or 
to canoe upon 
the streams and 
lakes, especially 
the beautiful 
Fig. 119. Moosehead and 

A moose in the woods of Maine. xvangely lakes. 




NEW ENGLAND 



153 




Fig. 120. 

Some views among the New England summer resorts. The railway (D) is on 
the side of Mt. Washington, and the mountain peak (C) is the top of Mt. 
Monadnock. B shows a view from the White Mountains, looking down ou 
the sea of clouds that fill the valleys. What do you see in the other pictures ? 

Others settle down at farmhouses to enjoy the quiet of the 
country (Figs. 102, 111, and 112). 

While great numbers visit the woods, mountains, and country, 
many go to the seashore to escape the heat and to bathe in the 
salt water, or to sail and row. So many go there, in fact, that 
almost the entire New England coast is dotted with summer 



154 THE UNITED STATES 

cottages and hotels. Thousands visit Bar Harbor on ZSlt. 
Desert Island in Maine (Fig. 110), which is therefore a veiw 
busy place in summer. Xantucket Island and Martha's Tine- 
yard are similar resorts farther south, while Xewport, just 
west of them, on Xarragansett Bay, is noted for its many mag- 
nificent summer homes. The smaller seacoast towns and cities 
also have many summer visitors, and the business of caring for 
them is the chief occupation of many of the people. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 



1 



Review Questions. — (1) What effects have the glacier and the 
sinking of the coast had upon Xew England ? (2) Describe the sur- 
face of the country and name the principal mountain ranges. (3) How 
do ocean currents influence its climate? (4) Describe lumbering in 
Maine. (5) To what use is lumber put ? (6) "What cities are noted 
for it? (7) How are maple sugar and syrup made in Vermont? 
(8) State how granite is quarried and what its uses are. (9) State the 
same about marble and slate. (10) Describe each of the kinds of fishing 
on the Xew England coast. (11) Tell about the farming. (12) What 
led to the early development of manufacturing in Xew England? 
(13) What now determines the site of a factory? (14) Describe cot- 
ton manufacturing. (15) "Wool manufacturing. (16) On the map, 
locate the cities most extensively engaged in either or both of these. 
(17) Tell about the tanning of leather. (18) About the manufacture 
of boots and shoes. (19) Locate the cities most noted for these in- 
dustries. (20) What can you say about the manufacture of metals? 
(21) Xame and locate the chief cities engaged in it. (22) Give 
several facts about Boston. (23) What large cities are near it? 

(24) Where and how do the people take their summer outing? 

(25) Make a drawing of the Xew England States, including the chief 
rivers, cities, and the state boundaries. 

Review by States: Maine (J/e.). — (1) Draw the coast line of 
Maine. (2) What makes it so irregular? (3) What are the princi- 
pal rivers ? (4) What cities are situated on each ? (5) Much ice is 
obtained in Maine. Why more than in Connecticut ? (6) Should you 
expect much fishing along the coast ? Why ? (7) What reasons can 
you give why so many people resort to the Maine coast and woods in 
summer? (8) Describe the lumbering in Maine. (9) What cities 
are engaged in producing lumber? Why? (10) What stones are 



NEW ENGLAND 155 

quarried in the state? (11) Which is the largest city? How does 
it compare in size with Boston and Providence? (See table, p. 448.) 
(12) What other cities in Maine are mentioned in the text? Find 
them on the map. (13) Draw an outline map of Maine, locating 
the principal rivers and lakes, the capital, and the chief cities. Do 
the same for each of the other states as you study about it. 

New Hampshire (N.H.) — (14) What large lakes are found in this 
state? What river? (15) Name the cities on it. (16) For what are 
they important? (17) Why are there not more cities in northern New 
Hampshire ? (18) What industry should you expect there ? (19) Find 
Mt. Washington ; it is the highest peak in New England. (20) Where 
should you expect to find most farming ? (21) How does the largest 
city in the state compare in size with Portland? (See table, p. 448.) 

Vermont (Vt.). — (22) What large lake on the western boundary? 
Into what waters does it flow? (23) What river on the eastern 
boundary? Through what states does it pass? (24) What is the 
name of the mountains ? (25) Lumbering is carried on, as in Maine ; 
into what waters must the lumber be floated? (26) What other Ver- 
mont industries are mentioned in the text? (27) There is also farm- 
ing in the fertile valleys and some manufacturing, as at Brattleboro. 
Find it. (28) Compare the size of the largest city with that of Man- 
chester, N.H. (see table, p. 448). 

Massachusetts (Mass). — (29) Measure the length and width of 
Massachusetts and compare it with Vermont, New Hampshire, and 
Maine. (30) Name the large cities near Boston (see Fig. 117). 
(31) Find Plymouth ; for what is it noted? (32) Find the principal 
cities mentioned in the text and tell where each is located. (33) For 
what is each important ? (34) What advantages do you see in the loca- 
tion of each? (35) Examine the relief map (Fig. 101, p. 125) to see 
whether Massachusetts is more or less mountainous than Maine, New 
Hampshire, and Vermont. (36) Where is the mountainous portion 
of the state? (37) What effect should you expect the mountains to 
have upon agriculture ? (38) Should you expect to find forests there ? 
(39) Remembering what was said about the value of a near market 
(p. 140), in what part of the state should you expect farming to be 
most profitable ? (40) State as clearly as you can the reasons why 
Boston has grown as it has. (41) Of what importance is Boston to 
the cities near by? (42) Of what importance are they to Boston? 

Rhode Island (R.I.). — (43) Measure this and compare its length and 
width with that of Massachusetts and Maine. It is the smallest state 
in the Union. (44) What is the name of the bay in this state ? 



156 THE UNITED STATES 

What cities are situated on it? (45) One way to go from Boston to 
New York is by rail to Fall River then by Sound steamer (Fig. 117). 
Why is this preferable to a trip all the way by water ? (46) What 
large city in Rhode Island ? (47) Compare its size with Boston and 
Portland (see table, p. 448). (48) Should you expect much lumber- 
ing in Rhode Island? Why? (49) Farming? Why? 

Connecticut (Conn., or Ct.). — (50) Where are the mountains in 
this state ? (51) Locate each of the cities mentioned in the text. 
(52) Tell for what each is important. (53) The farms of Connecticut 
are better than those of Maine. Give reasons for this. (54) There 
is almost no lumbering in the state. Why? (55) Compare the size 
of New Haven with that of Boston and Portland (see table, p. 448). 

General. — (56) Name the industries of New England. Tell in 
which states they are carried on. Which industry do you consider to 
be the most important ? (57) Make a list of the ten largest cities 
(see table, p. 448) in New England, the states they are in, and the 
business they are engaged in. 

Suggestions. — (1) Read Whit-tier's Snowbound. (2) Read about 
lumbering in Chase and Clow's Stories of Industry, Vol. I. (3) Dis- 
solve some maple sugar in water to make syrup ; then boil it to evapo- 
rate the water, making sugar again. (4) Visit a stone-yard, or a 
place where monuments are made, and collect some specimens from 
the chips in the yard. (5) Find blocks of granite and marble in 
buildings. (6) Find out how fishing was carried on in the olden 
times by reading Chapter xxi. in the book of John, New Testament. 
(7) Make drawings of mackerel, cod, and halibut. You will find 
pictures of them in the dictionary. (8) Make a collection of cotton, 
w 7 ool, leather, and metals for the school. Also make a collection of 
articles manufactured from them. (9) If cotton is worth 1\ cents 
per pound, how much would the 70,000 pounds, that one mill uses in 
a day, be worth ? (10) The cotton mill referred to on page 143 con- 
sumes 25 tons of coal per day, besides depending partly upon water 
power : if the coal costs $>3.00 per ton, what is the coal bill for a year? 

(11) What are the average wages per hour of the hands in the Waltham 
Watch Factory; the working day there is ten hours long. How many 
watches are made per minute ? Per year ? (See the figures on p. 147.) 

(12) Visit some factory to see how its work is carried on. (13) Find 
out about the ice industry in Maine. 

For References to Books and Articles, see page 439. 



IX. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Which states have mountains ? (2) Which 
have none ? (3) What influence do you think the mountains have 
upon the industries? (4) What waters help to form the boundary of 
this group of states? (5) Find where natural boundaries separate 
the states. (6) What would have formed a more natural boundary 
for the northernmost part of New York? (7) For the boundary 
between Massachusetts and New York? (8) Measure the length 
and width of this group of states and compare them with the New 
England States. Notice that the scale of the two maps is different. 
(9) Which is the largest state ? Is it larger or smaller than Maine ? 
(See table, p. 445.) Which is the smallest state? Is it larger or 
smaller than Rhode Island ? (10) Name the three bays. Why has a 
city at the head of one of these bays a better location than one at the 
entrance? (11) Name the capital of each state. (12) Why has, 
Harrisburg a better location for the capital of Pennsylvania than 
Philadelphia? (13) The capital of the United States is in the east- 
ern part of the country. Why ? Where would a better location be ? 
(14) Each of the bays has a river entering it. How does that hap- 
pen ? (See pp. 19 and 20.) (15) Name the five largest rivers. Into 
what waters do they flow ? Through what states ? 

Physiography. — The Appalachian mountain ranges 
and plateaus, with their stores of coal and iron, extend 
across these states from northeast to southwest. Just 
east of the mountains is a low, hilly plateau of hard rock, 
called the Piedmont 1 plateau. This low, hilly region is 
really a worn-down mountain land like New England ; in 
fact, it represents the very roots of those mountains which 
rose above the sea long before the Coal Period (p. 2). 
The land slopes seaward, and the streams flow in short 
courses in the same direction. 

1 Piedmont means foot of mountain. 
157 



158 



THE EXITED STATES 




Fig. 122. 
Where are the lakes found ? Why in that part ? 

Nearer the seacoast the country is a low plain of softer 
rocks, chiefly sands and clays, that were deposited on the 
sea bottom and then raised to form dry land. These 
plains, added to the country not many ages ago, are 
known as the coastal plains (Fig. 96). 

From Xew York to Alabama the line of division between 
the Piedmont plateau and the coastal plains is marked by 
rapids and low falls near where streams cross it, and it is, 
therefore, called the fall line (Fig. 123). There are rapids and 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



159 



falls at this place because the 
streams dig more rapidly into the 
soft layers of the coastal plains 
than into the harder rocks of the 
Piedmont plateau. 

Since the rapids and falls de- 
termine the place where boats 
passing up stream must stop, and 
also where there is water power, 
the earlier settlers located their 
villages on the fall line, as the Ind- 
ians had done before them. Note 
(Fig. 123) how many large cities 
are on this line. Name them. 




Fig. 123. 

The fall line. Coastal plains 
dotted, Piedmont and other 
sections left white. Cities 
printed in heavy type are 
located along the fall line. 



Although at first the Appa- 
lachians acted as a serious bar- 
rier to westward migration (p. 
102), at the beginning of this century many emigrants 
pushed their way across the mountains. This migration 
was greatly aided by the fact that numerous, rivers, such 
as the Mohawk, Delaware (Fig. 124), Susquehanna, Poto- 
mac, and James, flow across a 
part or the whole of the moun- 
tain system. They offered a 
comparatively easy route across 
the mountains and therefore 
formed gateways to the fertile 
western plains beyond. Trace 
each of these rivers from its 
source to its mouth. 

On the west side of the Appa- 
lachians there is a plateau, slop- 
ing gently toward the Ohio and 




Fig. 124. 



The Delaware Water Gap, 
where the Delaware crosses 
a mountain ridge. 



160 



THE UNITED STATES 



Mississippi rivers, called the Allegheny plateau. Near the 
mountains, in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, the pla- 
teau is so deeply cut by rivers, and therefore so rocky, 
that it would probably have attracted but few settlers had 
it not been for the rich coal beds enclosed in its strata. 

The mining of this 
coal has been greatly 
aided by the work 
of the rivers, which 
have in many cases 
cut down to the coal 
beds and brought the 
coal to light (Fig. 8). 
Owing to the fact 
that the glacier did 
not spread over the 
southern part of this 
group of states (Fig. 
13), few lakes and 
waterfalls are found 
there. But they 
abound in New York 
and northern New 
Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania, which the 
glacier covered. In- 
deed, on the boun- 
dary of New York is the greatest waterfall in the world — 
the famous Niagara (Fig. 125). Two of the Great Lakes 
are also partly in New York, and a number of other large 
lakes are within its boundaries. Name some of them. 
See map, Figure 121, opposite page 157. 




Fig. 125. 
A view of Niagara Falls. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



161 



In the Middle States, as in New England, the sinking 
of the land has produced numerous large bays and fine 
harbors, through which the tide often reaches far inland. 
In the Hudson River, for example, the tide extends above 
Albany, and in the several branches of the Chesapeake 
Bay it reaches nearly to the fall line. 

Most of the coast is low and sandy, with a gradual descent into 
the sea, so that bathing is excellent (Fig. 126). Because of this 
fact and the cool sea breezes of summer, the coast is noted for 
its numerous summer resorts, especially near the large cities. 




Fig. 126. 
A New Jersey beach in summer. 

Climate. - — ■ The northern part of New York reaches to 
the 45th parallel of latitude. How far is that from the 
equator ? From the north pole ? How much nearer the 
equator is the southern part of Virginia ? 

While the climate of the northern portion of this group 
of states resembles that of New England, the climate of 
the southern portion is much warmer. Its greater warmth 
is due partly to the lower latitude, and partly to the ocean 
currents. The cold Labrador current does not extend 
south of Cape Cod ; but the Gulf Stream passes very near 
the Virginia coast (Fig. 59). 



162 



THE UNITED STATES 



The climate is so mild in Virginia that sleighing and skating 
are rarely possible, while places near the entrance of Chesapeake 
Bay — as Old Point Comfort and Newport News — are im- 
portant winter resorts. Among the mountains, however, the 
climate is cooler ; and even as far south as Virginia and North 
Carolina there are cool summer resorts on the mountain sides. 

The variable winds, caused by the cyclonic storms, sup- 
ply all of these states with thirty or forty inches of rain 
per year (Fig. 46), which is sufficient for crops and for 
dense forests. Because of its climate and products, the 




Fig. 127. 

A view in the forest-covered Adirondack^ of New York, 
by S. R. Stoddard, Glens Falls.) 



(Copyrighted 1889, 



region is well fitted to support a dense population ; and 
next we shall see where the largest numbers of people are 
collected, and in what occupations they are engaged. 

Forests. — Many of the prominent industries in these states 
are the same as those of New England. For example, there 
are extensive forests both in the Adirondack and Appalachian 
mountains, and upon the Allegheny plateau near their western 
base. In the southern part, as in West Virginia, many hard- 
wood trees are found ; but in the northern portion both the 
trees and the methods of lumbering resemble those in Maine. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 163 

Williamsport, in Pennsylvania, is extensively engaged in the 
lumber business, as Bangor is in Maine. There are also many 
paper-mills supplied from the forests, as in AVatertown near 
the Adirondacks. 

Over most parts of this section the woods have been so wan- 
tonly destroyed that it is now necessary to protect those that 
are left. New York State has established large forest reserva- 
tions, and founded a College of Forestry at Cornell University, 
in Ithaca. Besides this, some large tracts of woodland, called 
game preserves, are carefully protected by certain citizens for 
the purpose of fishing and hunting at the proper season. 

Fish and Oysters. — Fishing is a much less important in- 
dustry than in New England. In the bays many shad are 
caught. This fish swims up the bays and rivers each spring 
in order to lay its eggs in fresh water, where the young 
remain until they are large enough to venture to the sea. 

Oysters are found from Cape Cod to the Rio Grande 
(Fig. 348, p. 417) ; but one of the best localities for them 
is Chesapeake Bay, where the waters are warm and quiet. 
From this region they are collected in great quantities. 
Some are shipped away fresh in the shell, but many are 
canned, like fruit. Baltimore and Norfolk are espe- 
cially noted for this industry. 

When young, the oysters swim about freely ; but after reach- 
ing a certain age, they sink to the bottom, fasten themselves to 
some solid substance, like a stone or an oyster shell, and never 
move from that spot. They depend for food upon what is 
brought to their mouths by the incoming and outflowing tides. 
Oysters prefer comparatively shallow water and can sometimes 
be picked up by hand from a boat ; but usually they must be 
dragged or dredged up by a long-handled rake. Small steamers 
and sailing boats are used for gathering them. So profitable is 
the industry that in many places there are private oyster beds, 
or " plantations," which are carefully protected. 



164 



THE UNITED STATES 



Agriculture 

There is more good farm land in these states than in 
New England, and therefore agriculture is a more impor- 
tant industry. The low, level, coastal plains, the gently 
undulating Piedmont plateau, and nearly all of New York 
State, excepting the Catskill and Adirondack mountains, 
are dotted with farms. Also in the valleys of the Alle- 
gheny plateau, and in the broad valleys between the 
Appalachian ridges, there is much farming land. In fact, 
there were farms in the latter valleys even before there 
were settlers in the prairie states farther west. The numer- 
ous large cities call for quantities of vegetables and small 
fruit, and consequently there is much truck farming. 

Dairying. — Many farmers turn their attention chiefly 
to dairying ; and, although butter and cheese are made in 

every state in 
the Union, 
this work is 
so important 
in New York 
that it is de- 
scribed at 
this point. 

The number 
of cows in a 
d airy herd 
(Fig. 128) va- 
ries from a 

dozen to several score. In summer they are usually allowed 
to graze in pastures, but during the winter they are fed in 
large barns. Twice each day they are milked, and the milk 
may be sent to a neighboring city to be sold by the quart, as 




Fig. 128. 

A dairy herd in New York, on the way to the barn in the 
evening. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



165 






in New England (p. 141), or it may be kept for butter. In the 
latter case it is placed in a rapidly revolving machine, called 
a separator, which separates the cream from the milk. The 
cream is then churned until butter is made. The skimmed"] 
milk, left after the cream is separated, and the buttermilk, r 
left after the butter is made, are generally of little use. 



The best cheese is made 
from fresh milk ; but the 
process is too difficult to 
be described, here. Utica, 
on the Mohawk River, is 
an important cheese mar- 
ket ; and. scattered, all over 
New York are small cheese 
and butter factories, or 
creameries. These are of 
great value to the sur- 
rounding farmers, since 
they furnish a ready mar- 
ket for the milk, some of 
which is brought to the 
creameries on trains. 




Fig. 129. 
The tobacco plant. 



Tobacco. — Among the plants which the early explorers 
found in America was the tobacco. Much to the aston- 
ishment of the Europeans, the savages smoked the dried 
tobacco leaves in pipes. However, the newcomers quickly 
learned to smoke also, and tobacco soon became one of 
the leading products shipped to Europe. Now its use 
extends throughout the world. So much tobacco is now 
consumed that, although produced in many countries, 
tens of thousands of men in the United States alone are 
employed in raising and preparing it for the market. 



166 THE UNITED STATES 

The climate of most parts of New England and New 
York is too severe for this plant ; but large quantities 
are raised in the Connecticut Valley lowland, and in the 
valleys of southern New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio 
(Fig. 333, p. 410). However, the state most noted for 
its production is Virginia. In the vicinity of Lynch- 
burg and Danville, where much tobacco manufacturing 
is carried on, immense quantities are raised ; and Rich- 
mond, not far away, is one of the greatest tobacco markets 
in the world. Find these cities. 

The plant, which grows to a height of about three and a 
half feet, has thick, hairy leaves which are large and broad 
(Fig. 129), somewhat like those of the pie-plant or rhubarb. 
The leaves, which are the valuable part of the plant, are 
plucked in the fall, hung in a room to dry, and then made into 
some form for use. Cigars are manufactured by carefully 
wrapping the leaves together by hand, while in plug tobacco 
they are mixed with licorice, molasses, and some other sub- 
stances, and pressed closely together in machines. When the 
leaves are cut into fine bits, the product is used for snuff, 
cigarettes, and pipe tobacco. 

Tobacco contains a poison called nicotine, which, in small 
quantities, is used as medicine, but in large quantities is 
extremely injurious. Even the amount that enters the system 
from smoking is sufficiently poisonous to injure most people. 
It seriously affects the nerves, and excessive smokers have 
suffered intensely from it. Persons who have not reached 
maturity are especially injured by it. 

Fruits and Vegetables. — Both the fertile soil and the 
climate of these states are well suited to fruit raising. 
Nearly every farmer raises some fruit. But the sections 
near water have the best climate for it, because the water 
causes the air to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 167 

For example, the Chautauqua grape belt, in western New 
York, is along the southern shores of Lake Erie. There one 
may drive for scores of miles in the midst of vineyards (Fig. 
130), where the air in springtime is laden with the fragrance 
of the grape blossoms, and in the fall with the tempting odor 
of the ripe fruit (Fig. 131). 

Apples form another important fruit crop in New York, 
being grown in many parts of the state, but especially 
along the southern shores of Lake Ontario. So much 




Fig. 130. 
A vineyard in New York. 

fruit is cultivated in New York that the nursery business, 
or that of raising young fruit trees and bushes to sell, is 
greatly developed. One of the principal centres for this 
business is Rochester. 

On the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau of eastern 
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, grapes, 
berries, especially strawberries, apples, and other fruits 
flourish. Aside from fruit, such common vegetables as 
potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and sweet corn, are raised in all 
parts of these states, 



168 



THE UNITED STATES 







is •• 





Fig. 131. 

Clusters of grapes in a vineyard in central 
New York. 



All of these fruits and vegetables are eaten fresh during the 
proper season, being used in such quantities that they are sent 
to the cities on fast trains, and even in special cars. They are 
prepared for the table in other ways also ; for instance, the 

juice of grapes is made in- 
to wine, and that of apples 
into vinegar. Two sec- 
tions of the United States 
produce quantities of 
wine, one being New York, 
the other California. But 
much less is made in this 
country than in France, 
Germany, and other parts 
of Europe. 

Wine is made by press- 
ing the juice out of the 
grape and allowing it to 
ferment. Cider is made by squeezing the juice out of apples in 
strong presses. When fresh, this juice is cider ; but after it 
has stood for some time, it turns to vinegar. 

The canning of fruits and vegetables for winter use has be- 
come an important industry in several cities, as in Baltimoee 
and Wilmington. Many farmers are engaged almost entirely 
in raising fruits and vegetables for this purpose. Probably as 
many peaches, berries, tomatoes, etc., are put up in cans as are 
eaten in the fresh state. The tin cans in which they are pre- 
served are to be seen in every grocery store. 

Many other crops, such as hay and grain, are raised in 
the Middle Atlantic States ; but a description of these 
will be given in connection with the states further west, 
where such crops are produced on a much larger scale 
(pp. 243-247). 

This farming not only supplies food to the residents of 
the cities, but it also furnishes many of them with occupa- 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 169 

tion. The marketmen and grocerymen, for instance, re- 
ceive a profit when they sell vegetables, whether fresh or 
canned. The workmen in the flour-mills and canneries 
are also supplied with work by the farmers. Many other 
factories are established because of farming ; for example, 
the agricultural implement factory at Auburn, New York 
(p. 179). Even much of the lumbering and mining is done 
because the farmers need furniture, ploughs, etc. Besides 
this, supplying goods needed by the farmers forms an 
important part of the business in many cities, like Lan- 
caster, Pennsylvania, which is in the midst of a rich 
farming country. 

Mining 

The products from underground are far more important 
in these states than in New England. 

Salt. — One of these is salt, a mineral which every person 
must have. In the early days salt springs were discovered at 
the point where Syracuse stands, and that city owed its early 
growth to those springs. Little salt is now produced there; 
but immense quantities of soda are made of brine obtained 
from the beds of salt near by. 

These beds of salt were deposited in the ancient sea which 
covered this region before the Coal Period, and were then 
buried beneath layers of rock. They lie deep down in the 
earth in the region south of Syracuse and Rochester, and from 
them salt is obtained at a number of places. In fact, New 
York produces more salt than any other state. 

When in the earth, salt is hard, somewhat like coal, and 
must be obtained in one of two ways. In one case a hole is 
bored to it and water allowed to run down and dissolve it ; 
then the brine is pumped up and the water is evaporated by 
heat until only the salt is left. In the other case, a deep hole, 
or shaft, large enough for men to pass up and down, is dug down 



170 



THE UNITED STATES 



to the salt ; then lumps of salt are broken off and hoisted to 
the surface. A salt mine is a beautiful sight with its clear, 
crystal-white walls and clean floor. 

Coal. — Although there is little water power south of 
the region formerly covered by the glacier, there is coal — 

an excellent substitute. 
The coal swamps that 
existed millions of years 
ago (p. 3), stretched 
westward from the 
ancient Appalachian 
Mountains beyond the 
Mississippi River. In 
some places the coal has 
been entirely washed 
away. In others, it is 
sometimes found close 
to the surface and some- 
times several hundred 
feet beneath it. Most of 
this is soft or bituminous 
coal, which is mined in 
enormous quantities in 
the neighborhood of 
Pittsburg and Alle- 
gheny. 

When the plains and plateaus that contain the coal beds 
were raised above the sea, they were nearly everywhere 
lifted without much folding. This was the case in west- 
ern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois ; but in 
central Pennsylvania, mountains were formed, and there 
the rocks, including the coal beds, were folded. During the 




Fig. 132. 

A view in a coal mine in Pennsylvania. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 171 

long ages that these mountains have been exposed to the 
weather, the mountain tops have been greatly lowered. 
Also rivers have carved out deep valleys, and thus most 
of the coal in that section has been washed away and car- 
ried to the sea. In two or three places, however, as near 
Wilkes Barre and Scranton, beds of hard, or anthra- 
cite, coal remain. It is to this coal that these cities owe 
their importance. In that mountain region the coal beds 
were so deeply folded that neither the weather nor the 
rivers have been able to remove them ; and they remain, 
therefore, as remnants of much larger beds, preserved be- 
cause of their protected position. 

Anthracite coal was first made in the same way as soft coal. 
Had it not been subjected to the pressure caused by the moun- 
tain folding, it would doubtless have formed a bituminous coal ; 
but the pressure has changed it by driving off the gases that form 
a part of all woody matter. These changes have made the coal 
harder and more difficult to burn. However, siuce it gives 
forth a more intense heat than bituminous coal, it is preferred 
for some purposes, such as heating and cooking. Throughout 
New England and many parts of the Middle Atlantic States, 
anthracite is the only coal used for these purposes. 

Most of the anthracite beds lie far below the surface, and 
deep shafts have to be sunk to reach them. From the sides of 
such a shaft, tunnels are dug into the beds, and from these the 
coal is removed. Usually there are several beds of coal, with 
thick layers of rock between them, and the shaft extends down- 
ward through them all, with tunnels reaching out from it at 
each level of the mineral (Fig. 133). In a large mine one may 
travel for days through miles and miles of dark tunnels. 

The workmen break the coal with the aid of steam drills 
and picks, and they furnish their own light by means of 
lamps fastened to their caps. After the coal is broken loose, it 
is placed in small cars, drawn to the shaft by mules, or by 



172 



THE UNITED STATES 



electricity, and then hoisted to the surface by steam. The 
mules are kept underground for months, being fed and allowed 
to sleep in stables cut out of solid coal. 

In the early days the coal mining was carried on by Ameri- 
cans, and many are still employed at it. Now, however, for- 
eigners often do the more disagreeable parts of the work, and 
in a coal mine one may hear many different languages spoken. 
These workmen receive small pay and live in comparative pov- 




Fig. 133. 

Diagram to illustrate how coal is dug out of the heds in tunnels, and raised to 

the surface through shafts. 



erty, usually dwelling near the mines in dingy houses which 
they rent from the coal companies. There are few comforts in 
their homes, and still fewer luxuries. Sometimes, when there 
is little demand for coal, the miners have no employment for 
weeks ; and, becoming dissatisfied with their lot, they now and 
then refuse to work, or strike. At times, too, some of them re- 
sort to violence, in this action losing much of the sympathy 
from the rest of the world which their unhappy lot might 
otherwise win. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 173 

Oil and Gas. — In the plateau along the northwestern 
border of the Appalachian Mountains, two fuels, oil and 
gas, are found. Petroleum, as the oil is generally called, 
means " rock oil," a name which suggests its origin. 

Ages ago, when these layers of rock were being deposited 
on the ocean floor, countless numbers of animals and plants, 
dying and dropping to the bottom, were imprisoned and deeply 
buried. These plant and animal fossils then slowly decayed, 
forming oil and gas. Later, the oil and gas were stored in the 
earth in the pores between the grains of sandstone and other 
rocks. Very nearly the same kind of oil is now made from 
fish, and nearly the same kind of gas rises from plants that 
are decaying in swampy places. 

As soon as an opening is made through the rock by 
boring into it, the gas, which is associated with petroleum, 
rushes forth, and is conducted away in pipes, often to 
distant places. Thousands of homes in Buffalo, Pitts- 
burg, and other places are heated with natural gas ; and 
in many factories, too, the gas is used for fuel. 

Petroleum also flows out from the borings or oil wells ; 
but frequently it must be pumped out. Near the oil wells 
cities have grown up, such as Bradford and Oil City 
in Pennsylvania, and Olean in New York. After being 
taken from the earth, the petroleum is stored in large 
tanks and then refined (Fig. 134). In its natural state it 
is a thick, dark yellow or reddish yellow fluid ; but in the 
refinery it is changed so that the greater part of it becomes 
clear, colorless, kerosene oil. Benzine, naphtha, and gaso- 
line are also made from it. The thick substances left 
after the refining are used in making dyes of various 
kinds, machine oil, vaseline, and paraffin. One important 
use for the latter is in the manufacture of chewing gum. 



174 



THE EXITED STATES 



Xo region in the world furnishes so much oil as "western 
Pennsylvania. West Virginia, and eastern Ohio. The only sec- 
tion of the world that approaches it is in Eussia near the 

Caspian Sea. The 
oil business, 
which is one of the 
great industries 
of the country, is 
in the hands of a 
trust, called the 
Standard Oil 
Company, which 
has absorbed all 
the small dealers. 
From the wells 
the oil is led to the refineries in pipes many miles long, and the 
company owns immense numbers of special tank cars for carry- 
ing the kerosene over the country, and steamers for shipping it 
to foreign lands. Watch for one of the tank cars and describe it. 




Fig. 134. 

Oil tanks in an oil refinery. 



Iron Ore. — Pennsylvania and West Virginia enjoy a 
great advantage in having within their own borders an 
abundance, not only of coal, but also of oil and gas for 
fuel. Furthermore, the ore from which iron is obtained 
is also found in Pennsylvania. Thus both the raw mate- 
rial and the fuel necessary for manufacturing it into 
useful articles are found almost side by side. Of course 
the cities of the neighboring states, such as Xew York 
and Xew Jersey, are also able to obtain these materials. 

This is very important, since iron is the most valuable metal 
for manufacturing that exists. Like coal, this iron ore was 
prepared long ago, though in a very different manner. Small 
quantities of iron exist in many minerals and rocks, the red 
and yellow colors of many soils being due to it. As water slowly 
seeps through the rocks it dissolves the iron, much as it would 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



175 



dissolve salt or sugar if those substances were there. In some 
places, where the conditions have been favorable, the water has 
brought quantities of the iron to one place and deposited it, 
forming beds, or veins, and it is these that are now being mined. 
Sometimes the beds lie very deep, and again they are so 
near the surface that the iron ore is dug out of great open pits, 
as stone is taken from quarries. In appearance, iron ore is 
sometimes a hard, black mineral, sometimes a soft, loose, yel- 
lowish or reddish-brown earth. It is not iron at all, any more 
than wheat is flour; it is only the iron ore mineral out of 
which iron may be made by a great deal of work. 




Fig. 135. 

Coke ovens, on the right and left, and piles of coke lying about ready to be 

drawn away on the railway. 

Iron and Iron Goods. — It is easy to see that one of 
the principal industries of this section must be connected 
with iron. Two materials, coke and limestone, are used with 
the iron ore to reduce it to the metal. The coke is made 
from bituminous coal, and the limestone is obtained in 
quarries. 

To obtain coke, coal is placed in stone or brick furnaces, 
called coke ovens (Fig. 135), built in such a manner that very 
little air can reach the coal, which is then set on fire. Many 



176 



THE UNITED STATES 



of the gases that form a part of coal are thus either burned 
up or driven out. One of these gases is the same as that which 
is used for street lights and for illuminating houses. So little 
air is let into the ovens that not all substances in the coal are 
burnt. The part left is the very light, porous coke* which can 
then be burned and made to furnish intense heat, if supplied 
with plenty of air. 

In reducing iron ore to iron, more coke is used than ore, 
so that it is an advantage to have the mines of coal and iron 
ore near each other. The coke, iron ore, and limestone 

are all placed 
together in a 
high, tower- 
like structure, 
called a blast 
furnace, (Fig. 
136), so named 
because blasts 
of air are 
forced through 
it to produce a 
strong draft 
while the coke 
is burning. 



v - • 
ijjjjiffffi- r"f ■ - ->■- - ^m, 

9*9 Bifth_i 


^^^fc^^^^^^K 


i- .. -■' "-"•V"*^-' ■ — ■ - — «g[ 


***.- '- "■"-*■ -_^-.-^= 







Fig. 136. 
The outside of a Mast furnace. The large round tower 
on the left is the furnace ; the tall slender tower, the 
chimney ; the other, an elevator for hoisting the ore, 
coal, and limestone which are placed in the top of 
the furnace. 



Such great 
heat melts the 
ore and lime- 
stone ; and the iron, being heaviest, sinks to the bottom of the 
fiery-hot liquid. The limestone, and those- elements of the ore 
that are not iron, rise to the surface, forming slag — a worthless 
substance that is drawn off through an opening in the furnace 
and thrown away. Through a lower opening in the furnace, 
the iron is run off into trenches made of sand on a sand floor. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



177 




There is one main trench with numerous side branches, and 
each of these has still smaller branches connected with it, as in 
Figure 137. When the molten iron cools, the little bars of iron 
are attached to a larger one, much as baby pigs fasten them- 
selves to the 
mother sow; be- 
cause of this re- 
semblance it is 
called pig iron. 
These rough 
bars, which may 
be easily lifted, 
are then broken 
off and shipped 
away to be made 
into thousands 
of different arti- 
cles. 

Some iron 
goods, such as 
stoves and the iron parts of your desk, are nothing more than 
this pig iron melted and cast, in moulds, into the shape that is 
desired. This is cast iron, which is so brittle that it easily breaks 
under a heavy blow. Other materials, such as knife blades, 
boiler plates, rails for railways, and watch springs, are made of 
steel. This also is made of pig iron, though after it has been 
greatly hardened and strengthened by an expensive process. 

Wrought iron, a third kind, is used where it is necessary for 
the metal to bend and yet be tough, as in nails and iron wire. 

Almost every city in the Middle Atlantic States is 
engaged in iron work of some kind, some in making iron 
and steel out of ore, others in manufacturing iron and 
steel goods. For example, in New York State, Buffalo 
manufactures car wheels, machinery, and many other arti- 
cles. It has nearly four thousand manufactories, many of 



Fig. 137. 

Molten iron running out of a blast furnace into 

trenches, where it cools to form pig iron. 



178 



THE UNITED STATES 



them making iron goods ; and in New York City almost 
all kinds of iron goods are made. Iron and steel goods, 
bicycles, etc., are manufactured in Syracuse ; stoves are 
made in Albany and Troy ; and there are iron founderies 
in Binghamton, Elmira, and Schenectady. 

In Pennsjdvania, Philadelphia manufactures steel 
ships, cars, and hundreds of other iron goods ; Pittsburg 
and Allegheny (Fig. 209, p. 274) make steel and iron 
goods of nearly every kind ; and Scranton, Reading, 




Fig. 138. 
Pittsburg, where so much iron manufacturing is carried on. 

Harrisburg, Erie, Altoona, and a score of other places 
have furnaces, founderies, and machine shops for iron 
manufacturing. In New Jersey, Jersey City, Newark, 
Camden, and Hoboken manufacture iron goods ; in 
Delaware, Wilmington is noted for its cars and steel 
ships ; in Maryland, Baltimore, like Philadelphia and 
New York, has a great variety of iron manufactures. 
Wheeling in West Virginia, and Roanoke in Virginia, 
are also engaged in iron manufacturing. Almost any arti- 
cle of iron that you might name is made in these cities. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



179 



The importance of even a single manufactory is proved by the 
following facts : At D. M. Osborne Company's works, Auburn, 
New York, where farming implements, such as mowers, rakes, 
reapers, and harrows, are made, over 2700 men are employed, 
making one complete implement every 40 seconds. Each year 
these men and their families consume about 9000 barrels of 
flour, 62,000 bushels of potatoes, 200,000 dozen eggs, 1,400,000 
quarts of milk, 375,000 pounds of butter, and 1,300,000 pounds 
of meat, besides much coffee, tea, and sugar. Since they also 
need to buy clothes, shoes, etc., this one factory, by furnishing 
the money for all these purchases, helps to support farmers, 
storekeepers, shoe manufactories, railways, and many other 
industries ; but since it is the farmer who buys the imple- 
ments, it is he who has caused the factory to be needed. One 
is really dependent upon the other. 



Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc. — Three other mineral prod- 
ucts are especially worthy of note. Glass is manufactured 
at and near Pittsburg, 
Wheeling, and many 
other places, especially 
where natural gas fur- 
nishes cheap fuel. In the 
vicinity of the former cit}?" 
are sands which, when 
melted and mixed with 
other substances, make an 
excellent quality of glass. 
Pittsburg is the greatest 
centre for plate glass in 
the country. 

In and near Trenton, 
New Jersey, there is a kind FlG- 139- 

. A letter's wheel in the works of the 

Of Clay which may be man- Trenton Potteries Company. 




180 THE UNITED STATES 

ufactured into pottery of a very high grade, and pottery 
making has become an important industry in that city. 
To make such earthenware the clay is shaped by skilful 
workmen into cups, saucers, vases, etc. (Fig. 139), and 
then baked until it is hard. 

So many bricks are used for building, that brick yards are 
found in the neighborhood of nearly all cities. Bricks are made 
of clay, which is pressed into the brick shape when damp, then 
dried, and finally baked. In this process some of the grains 
melt, so that, when cooled again, they cling together like 
stone. The clays near Philadelphia, and the great clay 
beds of the Hudson valley above New York City, supply an 
abundance of brick for these great cities. 

Many other kinds of manufacturing might be men- 
tioned, as that of flour at Rochester, New York ; silk at 
Paterson, New Jersey ; shirts, collars, and cuffs at Troy ; 
starch at Oswego ; cotton goods at Utica ; boots and 
shoes at Binghamton and Rochester ; carpets at Yonk- 
ers ; and plush at Jamestown. There is some manu- 
facturing in nearly every town ; and in the large cities so 
many different kinds flourish that a score of pages would 
be required even to enumerate them. 

Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 

Location of New York City. — The greatest of all the 
cities of the United States is New York, which contains 
about three and a half million inhabitants, and is second 
only to London among the great cities of the world. 
There are several other large cities in its immediate 
vicinity, as Jersey City, Newark, Elizabeth, Pater- 
son, and Hoboken (Fig. 146), all across the Hudson River 






MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



181 



in New Jersey, but, so far as their business relations are 
concerned, forming a part of New York City. Before its 
union with New York, the great city of Brooklyn, on 
Long Island, was fourth among the cities of the Union. 

Such a vast collection of people in one section is due 
chiefly to the excellent harbor and the ease with which 
goods may be sent westward by water and by rail, making 
this the principal shipping point in America. More than 
half of all the foreign trade of the United States is carried 
on through this port. 




Pig. 140. 
Brooklyn Bridge in New York City. 

The tide reaches up the Hudson above Albany, and 
the Erie Canal extends from there westward to Buffalo 
(Fig. 141), on Lake Erie, a distance of 350 miles. From 
that point one is able to go by way of the lakes to Cleve- 
land, Detroit, Chicago, and Duluth. Thus, by the aid of 
this canal, New York City is connected by water with 
a vast inland territory which is highly productive and 
thickly populated. By sea New York is connected with 
different parts of the world, and steamships are con- 
stantly entering and leaving its harbor. 



182 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 141. 
The Erie Canal and other water routes of New York and vicinity. 

Erie Canal. — This canal, which is over 350 miles long, 
follows the easiest route westward from the Eastern 
States, the route used by the Indians before the white 
men came. Since the canal is only seventy feet wide and 
seven feet deep, all freight coming from the West in 
lake steamers, and intended for the canal, must be un- 
loaded at Buffalo, and placed in canal boats. These 
clumsy-looking boats are made with broad, flat bottoms, 
in order that they may carry heavy loads without sinking 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



183 



deep into the water. They are drawn by horses or mules 
that walk along the tow path at the side. 

Naturally the country traversed by the canal is not perfectly 
level. Therefore provision must be made to prevent a current 
of water, and to keep all parts of the channel full enough 
to float the boats. For this purpose the canal is built in sec- 
tions, each as level as possible, but not on the same level with 
the other sections, because the land is higher in some places 
than in others. 

These sections are connected by locks (Fig. 142), which are 
small parts of the canal that can be shut or " locked " off from 




Fig. 142. 
The locks in the Erie Canal at Lockport. 

the other parts. A boat going westward needs to be lifted to 
a higher level at the end of each section. It therefore enters 
one of these locks and is shut in ; then water is alloAved to pour 
in from the higher part and fill the lock, thus lifting the boat 
until it can proceed on the higher level. If going eastward, 
the boat also enters a lock, the gates are shut behind it, and 
then water is allowed to flow out until the surface is brought 



184 THE UNITED STATES 

down to the lower level, when the boat proceeds on its journey, 
as before. 

Before the Erie Canal was built Philadelphia was 
larger than New York, and Buffalo was only a small 
village (Fig. 143) ; but since the canal was completed, in 
1825, both the latter cities have grown rapidly, while nu- 
merous others along the Hudson River and the canal have 
attained great importance (Fig. 141). They all have 
manufacturing industries and use the canal for obtaining 



Fig. 143. 
Buffalo in 1828. 

such raw materials as coal and iron, and for shipping away 
the manufactured goods. Notice especially Lockport, 
situated where there is a very decided slope in the land, 
necessitating many locks in the canal, hence the name. 

Several other canals have been built in New York, as may 
be seen in Figure 141 ; point them out and explain their impor- 
tance. The smaller lakes and the Hudson River are also made 
use of as a part of the canal system ; but upon these larger 
bodies of water a number of canal boats are firmly lashed to- 
gether and taken in tow by a small steamer or tug boat. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



185 




Fig. 144. 
Map showing location of Buffalo, Rochester, and Albany. 

Railways of New York. — Canals furnish a very slow 
method of conveyance ; consequently, soon after the use 
of steam was discovered, men began to build railways. 
The New York Central Railway, one of the most impor- 
tant in the United States, extends from the very heart of 
New York City up the Hudson to Albany (Fig. 14-1), 
where it connects with Boston trains. From Albany 
westward to Buffalo the route is almost the same as 
that of the Erie Canal. 



186 



THE U SITED STATES 



Several other railways connect New York with the 
West, crossing the Appalachians at various points, and 
passing through Buffalo, which is a great railway cen- 
tre, as well as an important lake port (Fig. 144). At 
Buffalo immense quantities of grain, flour, lumber, and 
iron from the West are transferred from lake vessels to 
canal boats or railways, while coal and manufactured 
goods are shipped from the East westward. 

The Niagara Falls (Fig. 125), about twenty miles away, 
supply Buffalo with a great abundance of electric power. 
All the street cars are run by it, and many factories besides. 

Cars run by X iagara 
power go from Buf- 
falo to Lockpokt 
and to the city of 
Niagara Falls. 
The latter place has 
become an impor- 
tant manufacturing 
city because of the 
power furnished by 
the immense Xiag- 
ara cataract. 

Since the Hud- 
son Biyer is about a 
mile in width at its mouth, most of the railways reaching New 
York from the West and South cannot enter the city. They 
have their terminus just across the river at Hobokex or Jersey 
City in New Jersey. Because of this the latter city is one of 
the great railway centres of the country. From these points 
passengers and freight are conveyed across the river in ferries 
(Fig. 145), whole trains often being taken upon one boat. 

Since the numerous railways now carry much of the 
freight that used to be given to the canals, the latter have 




Fig. 145. 
A New York Ferry. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 187 

lost much, of their importance, and there is even some talk 
of abandoning the Erie Canal. 

New York City. — New York City is not only the 
greatest shipping point in North America, but, together 
with the neighboring cities, the greatest manufacturing 
centre as well. The place from which goods are most 
easily shipped in all directions is, for that very reason, 
one of the best places for manufacturing. Nearly every 
manufactured article that human beings need is made in 
or near New York ; but one of the most extensive indus- 
tries is the manufacture of clothing. Cotton and woollen 
goods are sent from the New England factories to New 
York to be made into such articles as dresses, men's suits, 
and underclothing, and then shipped away. Large build- 
ings, in which hundreds of men and women are employed, 
are given up to this one work. 

Iron and coal are so near at hand that the manufacture 
of iron goods is another great industry. The refining of 
petroleum is a third, the oil flowing in pipes from the oil 
fields of western Pennsylvania to great refineries in New 
Jersey near the metropolis. The refining of sugar .is 
another immense business in and near New York, as at 
Jersey City and Brooklyn ; and there are hundreds of 
other manufacturing industries. More books, magazines, 
and newspapers are published in New York than in any 
other city in the Union ; and so much wealth is collected 
there that the New York banks largely control the great 
business undertakings of all parts of the country. 

At the southern end of Manhattan Island, on which 
much of New York is built, there are about eight square 
miles of the city given up almost exclusively to the whole- 
sale trade. For the sake of space many of the great office 




ps 

1 ?.. B 'W>'.1IAMP. 

J£Ki-nuiu;;tuB 
'•"»■/ J*f" K ~ ,, 



Fitchburg 






\WhWM\k KV %^ 









Kemp: 










7^^^hila<lel^^^^^_E^BSKOl 




Fig. 146. 
Map to show the location of New York City and Philadelphia. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



189 



buildings are from eight to twenty-five stories in height. 
In this part of New York are collected such goods as are 
manufactured in the city or are brought to it from all parts 
of the world. Merchants in Denver, Louisville, St. Paul, 
Galveston, Indianapolis, and other cities, purchase these 
goods for their stores. In return the Western and South- 
ern people send grain, meat, sugar, etc., to this great city. 
Thus we daily depend 
upon one another for 
our living, even though 
our homes are far apart. 

The contrast between 
life in New York City and 
upon a farm (p. 240) is 
striking. On some of the 
streets scarcely anything 
but stores can be seen for 
ten or twelve miles, many 
of them being small, but 
some occupying enormous 
buildings and employing 
many hundreds of clerks. 

Families whose homes 
are in the city do not usu- 
ally occupy a whole house ; 
but many live in large buildings, in which hundreds of other 
people also live. Such a structure, called an apartment build- 
ing, is commonly from six to eight stories high, and is so 
arranged that one family occupies only a small part of one 
floor, or a flat. Other families live above and below, as well 
as on each side, being separated from them by only a few 
inches of brick or boards. Since land is so valuable, sometimes 
costing scores of dollars a square foot, there is commonly 
neither front nor back yard. Indeed, excepting where a park 




Fig. 147. 

One of the high huildings in lower New 
York. How many stories has it ? 



190 



THE UNITED STATES 



happens to be within reach, the street is almost the only place 
for children to play out of doors. A single apartment house 
may contain three hundred persons, or more than live in an 
entire village in many parts of the country. 

In the poorer sections of the city the people are even more 
densely crowded. Some of the children have never seen the 
country, and scarcely any birds, trees, or grass, excepting pos- 
sibly in one of the city parks. In these sections there are 
many foreigners from all the nations of the earth. There is 

much poverty among them, 
and many live in the midst of 
conditions that can scarcely 
be described, — filth, vice, 
and crime of all kinds pre- 
vailing. 

To escape the necessity 
of living in crowded city 
homes, tens of thousands of 
men have their dwellings in 
suburban towns or country 
homes, from ten to forty 
miles from their places of 
business. They spend from 
one to three hours daily 
travelling back and forth. 
A part of the time they ride 
upon elevated railways that are built in the street, two, three, 
and four stories above the ground, and supported by iron col- 
umns (Fig. 148). 

How different all this is from the country, where only two 
or three houses are to be seen at a time ! Where sunlight and 
fresh air enter one's home from all sides of the building ! 
AVhere there is plenty of room to play, with green grass, large 
trees, and singing birds in the yard ! No wonder that people 
living in great cities are anxious to visit the country, the moun- 
tains, the lakes, and the seashore, during a few days in the 
summer. 









W^5 

\| .JSP- 


\i 






EIL 


b&rajW^Hft||t 






BpfiSi 


^kmO".— 1 


■ II llll •*= 


»?7:'jf,'JJ- - ^ -* 


1111 



Fig. 148. 

New York City elevated railway skirting 
the border of one of the city parks. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 191 

Largely owing to the enormous population of New York 
City, with its immense manufacturing interests, and great 
wealth, New York is called the Empire State, ranking 
first in the Union in population, manufacturing, com- 
merce, and wealth (Figs. 322 and 352). 

New York State is prominent for its educational institutions 
also. In New York City is Columbia University; and at 
Ithaca, on Lake Cayuga, in the central part of the state, is 
Cornell University. Both of these should be associated with 
Princeton University in New Jersey, and Harvard and Yale 
universities in New England, as among the most important 
educational institutions in the country. Besides this, north of 
New York City, on the Hudson River, is West Point, the place 
where the government school for the training of army officers 
is located. Also at Poughkeepsie is Vassar, one of the great 
colleges for women, like Smith and Wellesley in Massachu- 
setts, and Bryn Mawr near Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia and its Chief Shipping Routes. — The lead- 
ing cities southwest of New York are located along the fall 
line. Name them as far as Richmond (Fig. 123). The 
greatest is Philadelphia, which is the third in size in 
the Union, containing 1,350,000 inhabitants. As in the 
case of New York, other important cities are near by, as 
Trenton and Camden, New Jersey, Chester and Nor- 
ristown, Pennsylvania, and Wilmington, Delaware. 
Water deep enough for ocean vessels reaches as far inland 
as Philadelphia, and its nearness to the coal fields renders 
it a great shipping point for coal which is sent to New 
England and the Southern States. 

As in the case of New York, numerous great railway 
lines enter Philadelphia, connecting it not only with the 
other cities of Pennsylvania, such as Harrisburg, the 



192 



THE UNITED STATES 



capital, and Pittsburg, but also with the cities of the 
North, South, and West. Among these lines are the Penn- 
sylvania Railway, and the Baltimore and Ohio, two of the 
greatest railways of the country. There are also many 
steamship lines from Philadelphia (Fig. 146). 

A number of canals have been built in Pennsylvania, 
as in New York ; but owing to the mountainous nature 




Fig. 149. 

One of our great war ships ready to be launched. 

of the country, there is no canal connection between 
Philadelphia and the Great Lakes. Therefore Erie, the 
city in Pennsylvania which would most naturally compare 
with Buffalo, is much smaller ; but being near the coal 
and iron, it is an important manufacturing city. 

Philadelphia and the neighboring city of Camden, 
being fine shipping points, are also great manufacturing 
centres. The coal and iron near by lead to the manufac- 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



193 



ture of cars, heavy machinery, and steel ships (Fig. 149) 
at Philadelphia and Wilmington. Great quantities 
of clothing are also made in Philadelphia, as in Boston 
and New York ; and in carpet manufacture Philadelphia 
is the most important city in the country. 

Philadelphia is called the Quaker City, having been founded 
by William Penn and other Quakers, many of whose descend- 
ants still live there. It 
was the home of Benja- 
min Pranklin, and for a 
number of years, before 
Washington was built, it 
was the capital of the 
United States. Inde- 
pendence Hall is still 
preserved, in which the 
Declaration of Indepen- 
dence was made and the 
Constitution of the United 
States was drawn up. The 
leading educational insti- 
tution there is the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. 




Fig. 150. 
Independence Hall, Philadelphia. 



Baltimore. — At the 
head of Chesapeake 
Bay, in Maryland, is the beautiful city of Baltimore, the 
sixth in size in the United States. Since it has a good 
harbor, and is connected with the West by railways across 
the mountains (Fig. 151), and also has access to the coal 
fields of Pennsylvania and West Virginia, Baltimore has 
become a noted manufacturing city and shipping port, 
like Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. Like them, 
also, it has a multitude of manufacturing interests. 




Fig. 151. 

Map to show the location of Baltimore and Washington. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



195 



Baltimore is the seat of Johns Hopkins University; and a 
few miles south, at Annapolis, is the United States Naval Acad- 
emy, which prepares officers for the navy, as West Point edu- 
cates men for the army (p. 191). Still farther south in Virginia 
is Norfolk, an important shipping port for Virginia products. 

District of Columbia. — Southwest of Baltimore, on the 
Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, is the city of 
Washington, our national capital (Fig. 151). When 




Fig. 152. 
The National Capitol, at Washington. 

first set aside, this district was near the centre of the set- 
tled part of the country. 

Washington is unlike other cities in two respects. In 
the first place, since there was a certainty that it would 
one day be very large, it was carefully planned, with wide 
streets and many parks ; and these have since received 
so much care that this is now one of the most beautiful 
cities in the world. 



196 THE UNITED STATES 

In the second place, the inhabitants are not chiefly 
interested, as in other large cities, in manufacturing and 
commerce. Here reside the President and his cabinet, 
members of Congress, foreign ambassadors, and other rep- 
resentatives of the great nations of the world. Besides 
these there are about twenty thousand men and women 
engaged in the work of the different departments of the 
government. The chief buildings, therefore, are not fac- 
tories and private office buildings, but great government 
buildings (Fig. 152). Also the topics for conversation 
pertain rather to the government than to matters of ordi- 
nary business. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiog- 
raphy of these states : — the Appalachian Mountains ; the Piedmont 
plateau ; the coastal plains ; the fall line and its importance ; the effect 
of the mountain barrier on westward migration ; the effect of the 
glacier; the coast line. (2) Tell about the climate: — its variations, 
and their effects on crops and seashore resorts. (3) Tell about the 
forests: — where they are ; what woods they contain ; cities; forest re- 
serves. (4) What fish are found along the coast ? (5) Describe the 
oyster fishing. (6) What cities are noted for their oyster industry? 
(7) Where is farming carried on ? What kinds? (8) Describe dairy- 
ing. (9) Describe the tobacco industry: — the first use of the weed; 
where raised ; at what cities manufactured ; the tobacco plant ; uses 
to which it is put ; the effects. (10) Tell about fruit raising : — where 
carried on ; kinds : uses to which each is put ; cities that are greatly 
benefited by the industry. (11) State how farming and other indus- 
tries are dependent on one another. (12) Tell about salt: — how 
formed; where found; how obtained. (13) State what you can about 
coal: — tell how coal was formed; how the two kinds differ; why 
some^anthi'acite is left ; to what uses it is put ; how it is mined ; the 
cities it has helped to locate ; how the miners live. (14) Tell the 
story of petroleum and natural gas: — where found; how obtained; 
to what uses put. (15) Do the same for iron ore. (16) Describe the 
process of obtaining pig iron. (17) In what three forms is iron used ? 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 197 

Mention some of the articles made of each. (18) Name the princi- 
pal cities engaged in the iron manufactivre. Find each on the map. 
(19) In what ways are the farmers and the employees of the Osborn 
factory of use to one another? (20) Tell about each of the other 
kinds of manufacturing mentioned. (21) For what is each of the 
cities important ? Find each on the map. (22) What large cities are 
near New York? (23) By what water route are New York and 
Albany connected? (24) New York and Buffalo? (25) Describe 
the Erie Canal : — its value ; how boats pass over it ; the cities it has 
helped to locate. (26) Why has Buffalo grown so large? (27) Jer- 
sey City ? (28) Describe New York City : — its location ; how it is 
connected with other sections ; the industries ; its influence upon 
other cities ; how the people live ; how they travel about ; how their 
life differs from life in the country. (29) What universities are 
mentioned ? Where is each ? (30) Tell about Philadelphia : — why 
it has become so large ; cities near by ; other cities ; other facts men- 
tioned. (31) For what is Baltimore noted? (32) What cities 
near by? (33) What city in District of Columbia? What is the 
principal occupation of the inhabitants? 

Be view by States: New York (N.Y.). — (1) Where are the 
mountains? (2) What are their names? (3) What are the indus- 
tries there? Why not agriculture among the mountains? (4) What 
about the relief of the rest of the state? (5) What effect has that 
upon agriculture? (6) What waters form parts of the boundary of 
the state? (7) Into what rivers do the lakes empty? (8) What rivers 
drain New York ? (9) State clearly the importance of the Erie Canal. 
(10) Which cities mentioned in the text are on the canal or on the 
Hudson? In what industry is each engaged? (11) What other 
cities of New York are mentioned? For what is each important? 
(12) Compare New York in size with all of New England. Remem- 
ber that the scales of the two maps are different. (13) Draw a map 
of New York like that of Maine (p. 155). When studying each of 
the other states, do the same for it. 

New Jersey. (N.J.). — (14) Why should peaches grow better in 
New Jersey than in New England? (15) Name and locate each 
of the cities mentioned in the text. For what is each important? 
(16) Make a list of the five largest cities in New Jersey, and compare, 
them with the five largest in New York. (For their populations, see 
table on p. 448.) (17) In what ways are some of the largest cities de- 
pendent upon the products of Pennsylvania? (18) In what ways are 
some dependent upon the Erie Canal? (19) Add together the popu- 



198 THE UNITED STATES 

lations of all the large cities near New York (see map, Fig. 146) to 
see how large it would be if it could include those in New Jersey. 

Pennsylvania (Pa. or Penn.). — (20) Where would you look for the 
best farm land ? (21) The principal forests ? (22) The leading coal 
mines ? (23) Where are the principal cities ? Why located where they 
are ? (24) Make a list of the five largest cities, and compare their size 
with the five largest in New York and New Jersey. (25) Why are 
there fewer lakes in Pennsylvania than in New York? (26) Should 
you expect to find fewer waterfalls also? (See p. 17.) (27) Why, 
then, is manufacturing so important in this state ? (28) What kind 
of manufacturing is especially important ? Why ? (29) What advan- 
tage do you see in the position of Pittsburg and Allegheny at the 
junction of two rivers ? (30) Through what states would one pass 
in going by boat from Pittsburg to the Gulf? (See map, Fig. 97.) 
(31) Measure the length and width of Pennsylvania. Also find its 
area (p. 445). Remember that number, for in many of the maps of 
this book the outline of Pennsylvania is used to show the comparative 
size of other sections. (32) Is Pennsylvania larger or smaller than 
New York? Virginia? Maine? New England? (33) Is it larger 
or smaller than the state you live in ? How much ? 

Delaivare (Del.). — (34) Which is the principal city in this state? 
(35) For what is it noted? (36) Why is it especially well situated 
for this industry? (37) Compare its size with New York, Buffalo, 
Pittsburg, and Albany. (38) The principal industries of the state are 
fruit raising and farming. What two reasons can you give why it is 
well fitted for these ? (39) Have you ever eaten any Delaware fruit ? 

Maryland (Md.). — (40) In which section is farming most im- 
portant? Why? (41) Of what importance are the mountains? 
(42) Notice how branching Chesapeake Bay is. Why is it so irregu- 
lar? (43) What influence should you think this would have upon the 
number of oysters found there? (44) Why is Baltimore favorably 
situated for receiving coal and iron from Pennsylvania? (45) For 
canning fruit, vegetables, and oysters? (46) What would be the 
effect upon the growth of Baltimore if the land should rise again 
so that Chesapeake Bay disappeared and the Susquehanna flowed 
through it? (47) Compare the size of Baltimore with Philadelphia, 
New York, and Boston. 

Virginia (Va.). — (48) Richmond is the most important city. In 
what other state was the capital the most important ? (49) Describe 
the tobacco industry. (50) Which cities are engaged in its manufac- 
ture? (51) What river separates Virginia from Maryland? (52) What 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 199 

river crosses the middle of Virginia ? (53) Compare Richmond in 
size with Boston. With Albany. 

West Virginia ( W. Va.) — (54) AVhat disadvantage is it to this state 
that it has no seacoast ? (55) How would we reach the ocean by water 
from West Virginia ? (56) Whei'e is the largest city ? Why there ? 
(57) How does it compare in size with Pittsburg ? (58) Should you 
expect to find much forest in this state ? (59) Much farming ? 
(60) Coal, iron, petroleum, and natural gas are found there. Of what 
value are these ? (61) What mountain range in eastern West Virginia. 

General. — (62) Describe the surface features of this group of 
states from the relief map (Fig. 122). (63) Describe the differences in 
climate in the different parts. (64) State the principal industries of 
the Middle Atlantic States. (65) Make a list of the ten largest 
cities. Add their populations together, and compare the result with 
the ten largest in New England (see table, p. 448) . 

Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictures of Niagara Falls. Learn some- 
thing about the use of Niagara power. (2) Examine a live oyster 
or clam, to see what holds the shells together. What do you sup- 
pose is the object of the shell? (3) The duty paid to the United 
States government on 1 pound of smoking tobacco is 12 cents. How 
much is that per ounce ? (4) Find where the canned fruits and vege- 
tables in your neighboring grocery store have come from. (5) Make 
a collection of the two kinds of coal. Of coke and iron ore. (6) In 
small bottles collect the products made from petroleum. (7) Collect 
samples of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. (8) Estimate on the 
map (Fig. 97) the distance by water from New York City to Duluth. 
(9) Find the population in the ten largest cities along the Great 
Lakes by adding the numbers given on pages 448-453. (10) Visit a 
canal and examine a lock. (11) Make a toy canal having a lock in it. 
(12) Give reasons why freight rates on canals are cheaper than those 
on railways. (13) Make a list of goods that need to be shipped by 
rail on account of speed. (14) Write a composition, giving the rea- 
sons why one might prefer to live in a large city. Why one might 
prefer to live in the country. (15) Give some reasons why Richmond 
has not become a great city like Philadelphia. (16) Collect pictures 
of scenes in a large city ; in the country. (17) Can you give a reason 
why the Erie Canal should have reached to Lake Erie instead of to 
Ontario ? (18) Make a drawing of these states, including the princi- 
pal rivers and cities. Locate the capitals. 

For References, see page 440. 



X. SOUTHERN STATES 

Map Questioxs. — (1) In what three parts of this section are 
mountains found? (2) What are the names of the mountains? 
(3) Which states have no mountains? (4) What are the principal 
tributaries to the largest river of the section? (5) Through what 
states would you pass in going by water from New Orleans to Chatta- 
nooga? (6) Find some natural boundaries in this section. (7) Com- 
pare the coast with that of New England. Why the difference? 
(S) Why are there so few lakes? (9) The rivers that rise in western 
Texas — as the Colorado — are often perfectly dry in the western 
third of their course. Why? (10) Xame the states in this group. 
(11) Find the capital of each. (12) Which of the states have a sea- 
coast? (13) Which have none ? (14) Which border the Mississippi ? 
(15) Which drain into that river? (16) Can you give reasons why 
the largest city is near the mouth of the Mississippi? 

Physiography. — Almost the entire area included in 
this group of states is made up of plains. The most 
level portions are the delta and flood plain of the Missis- 
sippi, and the coastal plains, which skirt the entire Gulf 
and Atlantic coast of the Southern States (Fig. 96). 
The coastal plains are very level ; and, since the rainfall 
is heavy, they are often swampy, especially near the rivers. 
Their higher portions are more irregular and better 
drained ; but, since the soil is sandy, there are large areas 
which are too barren for agriculture and are therefore still 
covered by an open pine forest. 

\Yest of the coastal plains that border the Atlantic, and 
separated from them by the fall line (Fig. 123), is the still 
higher Piedmont plateau, which extends to the base of the 

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202 



THE UNITED STATES 



Appalachians. The Piedmont section has a good drain- 
age and excellent soil, so that it is the seat of extensive 
agriculture, especially cotton and tobacco raising. This 
plain slopes gradually from the base of the Appalachians, 
where its elevation is about 1000 feet above sea level, to 
the fall line, where the elevation is from 100 to 500 feet 
above the sea. It is realty a region of old mountains 
worn down to a rolling and, in places, slightty hilly plain. 
On Figure 153 it will be seen that the Appalachian 
Mountains, with their rich coal beds, continue southwest 




Fig. 155. 

A peak rising above the forest-covered slopes of the mountains of western 
North Carolina. 

from Virginia into Alabama. In the Southern States these 
mountains are generalty low, as they are in the Middle 
Atlantic States ; but in western North Carolina (Fig. 155) 
and eastern Tennessee the mountains are much higher. In 
fact, the highest peak east of the Mississippi River is Mt. 
Mitchell in North Carolina. It is 6711 feet in altitude, 
or 418 feet higher than Mt. Washington in New Hampshire. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



203 




Fig. 15G. 

A view in the mountainous section of the 
extreme western part of Texas. 



As in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, there is a rough 
plateau west of the mountains. This plateau is deeply cut 
by river valleys, and is so rugged that it is still covered 
by extensive forests and has few inhabitants. Still farther 
west are the broad and 
fertile plains of the 
Mississippi Valley and 
of Texas. These are 
interrupted by some 
low mountains in Ind- 
ian Territory and Ar- 
kansas. 

In western Texas 
the plains rise until 
they become high pla- 
teaus, reaching an 
elevation of 4000 to 5000 feet near the base of the south- 
ern spurs of the Rocky Mountains, which extend into 
Texas (Fig. 156). 

The coast line is much more regular than that of New Eng- 
land. As has been stated (p. 20), this part of the continent 
has been raised instead of lowered. However, after the conti- 
nental shelf was lifted enough to form the coastal plains, there 
came a slight sinking, though much less than in New England. 
This sinking has admitted the ocean waters into the valleys, 
forming shallow bays and poor harbors. Sand bars, built by 
waves and tides, have made these harbors even poorer ; and each 
year large sums of money are spent by the government in dredg- 
ing the sand away from the harbor entrances. 

Bars are built, not only opposite the bays, but also 'where 
the storm waves break in the shallow water off shore. It is in 
this way that Capes Hatteras, Lookout, and Fear have been 
built, as well as the long chain of bars along the low southern 



204 



TEE UNITED STATES 



coast. The waves throw the sand up in banks, and the winds 
pile it still higher, forming sand dunes. These facts partly 
explain the reason why there are not so many large coast cities 
in the South as there are along the irregular, northern coast. 

Still another kind of coast is found in southern Florida, 
where countless millions of coral polyps live in the warm 
waters of the Gulf Stream. These have built the limestone 
rock which forms the southern part of the Florida peninsula 
(p. 71), and also the many reefs and small islands, or keys, 
which lie just south of Florida. 



Climate, — The low plains of the Southern States lie so 
far south that the climate is everywhere warm ; and the 

damp winds from the Gulf 



bring an abundant rain- 
fall to them. These condi- 
tions make it possible to 
raise cotton, sugar-cane, 
and rice, which cannot be 
grown in the colder North- 
ern States. In southern 
Florida, which reaches far- 
thest south, semi-tropical 
and even tropical fruits 
are easily raised. Among 
the Florida fruits are 
oranges (Fig. 170), lemons, 

pineapples (Fig, 157), cocoanuts, and bananas. What is 

the latitude of southern Florida? 

During the cold and disagreeable Northern winter, the South- 
ern weather is mild, like spring and autumn in the North. 
Flowers are in blossom and birds are singing, many of them 
having migrated there for the winter. Large numbers of North- 




Fig. 157. 

The pineapple growing in Florida. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



205 



ern people also go South to spend the winter at such resorts as 
Jacksonville and St. Augustine (Fig. 158), one of the early- 
Spanish settlements. One of the important winter industries 
of the inhabitants is the entertainment of these visitors. 

While Northern people travel South in winter to escape the 
cold, many Southerners go North in summer to escape the heat. 
Others summer among the high 
mountains, where the climate is 
cool, even in midsummer. The 
best-known mountain resort is 
Asheville in North Carolina. 
In some places, as Hot Springs, 
Arkansas, there are mineral 
springs, to which people resort 
to be cured of certain diseases. 



Western Texas has a differ- 
ent climate from the other 
parts of the South. Being in 
the horse latitudes (p. 49), and 
too far from the sea to be 
reached by damp winds, it re- 
ceives little rain. The occupa- 
tions are influenced accordingly 




Fig. 158. 
A street in the quaint old town 
of St. Augustine, founded in 
1565 by the Spaniards. 



As one travels west- 
ward from the Gulf, he passes from the warm, damp 
coastal plains to a semi-arid country. At first there are 
dense forests ; then come plains with scattered trees, espe- 
cially the live oak (Fig. 159) ; beyond these are broad 
prairies without trees, but with extensive cotton fields. 
Next a section is reached which is too dry for cotton. It 
stretches westward for several hundred miles, and within 
it ranching is the only industry possible. 

Forests. — Extensive areas in the Southern States are 
timber covered, and among the forests are found many 



206 



TBE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 159. 

A live oak grove with the Southern moss hanging from 

the limbs. 



trees unknown 
in the North, 
some of them, 
such as the 
magnolias, 
bearing large, 
sweet - scented 
flowers. There 
are forests not 
merely among 
the mountains, 
but also on the 
coastal plains, 
especially 
where the soil is sandy (Fig. 161). The method of lum- 
bering is somewhat different from that in New England 
(p. 127). Instead of float- 
ing the logs down to 
tide water by means of 
the spring freshets, saw- 
mills are located in the 
midst of the forests, if 
possible on the river 
banks. To them the logs 
are brought, either by 
water, by wagon, or by 
train, and sawed into 
lumber. 

The long -leaved or hard 
pine, often called the 

Georgia pine, which grows 

., , A view i:i the swampv forest land of the 

on the sandy coastal plains of Florida. 




SOUTHERN STATES 



207 



plains, is much used for flooring in the North. It is 
shipped North from the coastal cities of Charleston, 
South Carolina, Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, 
Jacksonville and Pensacola, Florida, and Mobile, 
Alabama. 

While the pine thrives on the low, sandy plains, the 
hardy oak and other trees are found upon the plateaus 
and among the mountains. Quantities of hard wood 
are shipped from Memphis, Tennessee ; but although 
much of the 
pine, oak, and 
other lumber 
is sent North, 
a great deal 
of it is manu- 
factured into 
doors, blinds, 
furniture, 
etc., in the 
South, as at 
Macon and 
Montgom- 
ery on the fall line, and at Atlanta. There is also 
lumber manufacturing at the coast cities already men- 
tioned, as well as in many other Southern cities. 

These forests are of value in two other ways. From them 
are obtained turpentine, and tannic acid, the liquid in which 
hides are soaked to make leather (p. 145). In the Northern 
States hemlock bark furnishes a tannic acid which gives the 
leather a red color, so that shoes made from it need to be 
blackened ; but tannic acid from the chestnut oak of the South 
gives a lighter or tan color, and it is from such leather that tan 













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A scene in the pine forest of the Southern coastal plains. 



208 



THE UNITED STATES 



shoes are made. Thus, some of the shoe factories of the North 
are dependent upon the distant forests of the South. The tan- 
neries of the South, on the other hand, are dependent upon the 
ranches of the West for their supply of hides. 

Turpentine is manufactured from the sap of the pine tree. 
The bark is scraped off and the sap allowed to ooze out, some- 
what as in the case of the sap of the sugar maple. This is 
then reduced to raw turpentine, to be used in paints, varnishes, 
medicine, tar, and other substances. 

Agriculture 

Although farming is» carried on in all the states we have 
thus far studied, other occupations are followed by great 




Fig. 162. 
Southern negro homes in the cotton belt. 

numbers of people. Give examples. In the South, how- 
ever, with its excellent soil and warm climate, agriculture 
is the principal industry. Indeed, until recently, there 
was almost no other industry excepting commerce. 

While the climate makes it possible to raise crops which 
cannot be grown in the cooler Northern States, some prod- 
ucts are the same as those of the North. For instance, 



SOUTHERN STATES 



209 



tobacco raising, already described as an industry of great 
importance in Virginia, is also extensively carried on in 
Tennessee and North Carolina. Durham, in the latter 
state, is a centre for tobacco manufacturing. Name some 
Virginia cities engaged in the same industry. 

Cotton. — The crop in the South that surpasses every 
other in value is cotton. The early colonists soon dis- 




Fig. 163. 
A negro school in the South. 

covered that cotton raising called for little skill, and that 
a ready market awaited the crop abroad. Their fields 
were. far too large to be cultivated without many laborers, 
and negro slaves, offered for sale at that time in many 
parts of the world, were found especially suited to work 
in the cotton fields. In this way it came about that cot- 
ton had much to do with the spread of slavery in the 
Southern States. 

A good negro could be purchased for the price of a horse, 
and little more needed to be expended upon him than the cost 
of his food, clothing, and shelter. Accordingly, when it was 
seen that negroes were adapted to the warm southern climate, 
and that they were able to perform the simple labor of cotton 



210 



THE UNITED STATES 



raising, they were imported by thousands. They were pur- 
chased from their chiefs in Africa, or from tribes that had 
captured them in war, and were transported to this country to 
be bought, sold, and worked. 

It is owing to the system of slavery that there are now 
eight millions of negroes in this country. Among the 
mountains of North Carolina and other states, where cot- 




Fig. 164. 

Negroes picking cotton. 

ton, rice, and sugar-cane cannot thrive, and where the 
farms have to be small, there are whole counties where 
there are almost no negroes ; but in portions of some of 
the Southern States they far outnumber the whites. Most 
of the negroes still make their living by working in the 
cotton fields, for cotton is the principal crop all the way 
from North Carolina to Texas. 

In 1898 the Southern States produced about 11,000,000 bales 
of cotton, each weighing nearly 500 pounds. Of this, about 



SOUTHERN STATES 



211 




Fig. 165. 
A scene at a railway station in the cotton belt. 

7,500,000 bales were shipped abroad, especially to England. 
The remainder was manufactured at home, particularly in New 
England and the South. In the same year the entire world 
produced a little over 17,000,000 bales, which makes it clear 
that the United States furnishes much more than half of all 
the cotton grown. When we remember that much of our 
clothing is made of cotton, it is evident that the Southern 
States make it their chief work to help clothe the various peo- 
ples of the world. 

Cotton requires rather fertile soil and a long, warm summer 
with an abundance of rain. These conditions exist throughout 
the regions marked as the cotton belt in Figure 330 ; but, on 
account of the short summer season, they are wanting in the 
North. Explain why cotton is not raised in western Texas 
and among the Appalachian Mountains. 



212 



THE UNITED STATES 



Cotton seeds are planted in the spring, in rows about three 
feet apart, and the weeds are kept out until the plants are 
nearly grown. They reach a height of about three feet, and 
develop large blossoms that produce a pod, in which the 
cotton and cotton seed are contained. On maturing, the pod 
bursts open, revealing a white woolly ball, known as the 
cotton boll, which in appearance resembles the downy substance 
in the thistle and in the pod of the milkweed. 

AYhen a great number of these pods have split open, a cot- 
ton plantation of five or six hundred acres presents a beautiful 
sight, — much like a field flecked with snow (Fig. 164). Then 



Ptsll^SbI 


H 




L^J 


mg* 


/■- .' 


■v -in- 

' "* ' , ^*?r'-'"*~ 




. - - •- , 





Fig. 166. 
Bales of cotton at a railway station in the South. 

the busy season for the pickers begins. As many as two or three 
hundred negroes — men, women, and children — may assemble 
in one field, carrying bags and picking cotton, singing melo- 
dies, and chattering in the negro dialect the livelong day. 

"When plucked from the pods, the cotton, is attached to 
seeds, and these must be removed before the cotton can be of 
use. The seedless cotton is tightly pressed into bales of about 
five hundred pounds, which are then covered with coarse jute 
bagging, bound with iron bands, and shipped away to the 
factories. 



Rice. — This is one of the most valuable food products 
of the world, being the main support for millions of 



SOUTHERN STATES 213 

people, as the Chinese, for example. Although it is not 
a staple food in the United States, nevertheless we do not 
raise even enough for our own use. Rice requires a warm 
climate and a damp soil, such as prevail on the low coastal 
and flood plains from the Carolinas to Texas. Although 
raised throughout that section, the largest quantity comes 
from Louisiana. 

The influence of the rice industry upon slavery is well 
illustrated in South Carolina. Its cultivation on the swampy 
coastal plains, where malaria prevails, proved a deadly occupa- 
tion to the white man, although negroes were able to live there. 
Thus it happened that the number of slaves increased at an 
enormous rate in the rice section, and shortly before the Revo- 
lutionary War they outnumbered the whites about three to one. 
There are now so many negroes living on the damp coastal 
plains that it is often called the black belt. 

In the cultivation of rice, after preparing the ground, as for 
other grains, and planting the seeds, it is usually necessary to 
flood the fields from ditches. As the plant grows, it forms a 
slender stalk, upon the top of which appears a head of seed 
somewhat resembling a head of oats, and commonly reaching a 
height of from three and a half to six feet. Just before the 
harvest season the Avater is drawn off, so that horses may enter 
the field, and the grain is then cut and the kernels thrashed 
out, as in the case of wheat. 

After the hull is removed, the grains are polished at such 
cities as New Orleans, Savannah, and Charleston, and are 
then ready for market. During the process of polishing, a 
white powder is ground off that is used for adulterating some 
foods, and also for making buttons. In some cases rice itself 
is used in making " pearl " buttons. 

Sugar-cane and Sugar. — There are a number of plants 
from whose sap sugar is made. One of these, the sugar 
maple, has already been mentioned (p. 132) ; another is 



214 



THE U SITED STATES 



the sugar beet, raised in great quantities in some of the 
European countries, and also, of late, in many parts of 
the United States. This beet is a very important source 
of sugar, because it can be raised in the cool temperate 
climate. For a long time, however, the principal source 
of sugar has been the sugar-cane, a plant that looks sorne- 

w hat like 



corn. 

This plant 
requires a fer- 
tile soil and 
grows only 
in warm re- 
gions, where 
there is prac- 
t i c a 1 1 y no 
frost even in 
winter. For 
this reason 
the greater 




Fig. 167. 

A sugar-cane field in Louisiana, with the sugar houses in 

the background. 



part of the cane sugar comes from tropical lands, such as 
the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines, Porto Rico, and 
Cuba (Fig. 332). In our own country the most noted 
sugar district is the delta and flood plains of the lower 
Mississippi in Louisiana. 

In that section there are large sugar plantations, some of 
them having several thousand acres planted in sugar-cane. 
Either in the fall or spring, the cane is planted in rows about 
six feet apart, and a crop is raised every twelve months, being 
cut in the fall after the middle of October. The stalks grow 
to be two or more inches in diameter, and reach such a height 
that a man riding through them on horseback may easily be 



SOUTHERN STATES 



215 



entirely hidden from view (Fig. 168). As soon as the stalks 
are cut, they are drawn to the sugar house in wagons, or, on 
the larger plantations, in railway cars (Fig. 169). 

There the cane is ground between rollers in order to squeeze 
out the juice, which is so acid that it must next be treated 
with lime. The waste cane, after the juice is pressed out, is 
used as a fuel to run the engines of the sugar house (Fig. 167), 
and the sap is placed in large vats and warmed to evaporate 
the water. As a result, two products are formed, — a thick 
black molasses, and brown sugar. Some large sugar houses 
produce as much as fourteen million pounds of sugar a year. 




Fig. 168. 
Negro women cutting the sugar-cane in Louisiana. 

The crude sugar is sent from the sugar house to the 
refinery, either in New Orleans (Fig. 175), or in the 
North. At the refinery it is changed, to white sugar by a 
complicated process, as a result of which the various 
grades of granulated, powdered, and lump sugar are pro- 
duced. In changing the brown to the white sugar, burned 
bones, called bone black, are made use of to filter out the 
impurities. The bones are obtained from the packing 
houses of Chicago and elsewhere, where large numbers of 
animals are killed for meat. 



216 



THE UNITED STATES 









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■jiitsSfl, 


,u J 11 lllMftf Oi Ainil&l 




lSw 


^_ , *Sto^ 




pi - 4»4^S"i--i»^"5 l iT^13K8lH 


Br A 




HP?!? 


^^y^^^^^KiaTOp^ »R' 



Fig. 169. 
Loading the sugar-cane on cars to be drawn to the sugar house. 

The molasses is used for various purposes, some of it, 
especially in the West Indies, being consumed in the 
manufacture of rum. Molasses is a by-product, like saw- 
dust in a lumber mill, and is not considered of much 
value by the sugar raiser. 

Fruits. — Fruits, such as water- 
melons, apples, peaches, pears, and 
grapes, nourish in the warm climate 
of the Southern States. Florida, 
however, is so far south that it has 
fruits of an entirely different kind. 
There are orange and lemon groves 
in many parts of the state ; but in 
the northern part the trees have been 
greatly injured by frosts. During 
cold waves (p. 56), cool air from 
the North sweeps over the South- 
ern States even as far as Florida, sometimes causing great 
destruction. Further south, where frosts never appear, 




Fig. 170. 

Oranges in a Florida 
orange grove. 



SOUTHERN STATES 217 

are found the more tender tropical plants, such as cocoa- 
nuts and pineapples (Fig. 157). The latter grow especially 
well on the low coral keys, the plant resembling an arid 
land plant with the pineapple nestled in the midst of 
sharp-pointed leaves. 

Florida and other Southern fruits are sent in great 
quantities to the Northern States, where they appear in 
the markets early in the spring. Thousands of bushels 
at a time are shipped by fast train and steamer. They 
are sent together with early vegetables, and are intended 
for hundreds of cities and towns in the North. 

Other Crops. — Many other crops besides those thus far named 
are raised in the South, corn and wheat being among the most 
important. An immense quantity of corn is produced, and over 
almost as wide an area as cotton itself ; but since corn and wheat 
are raised so much more extensively in states farther north, 
where cotton will not grow, they are treated later (p. 243). 

Peanuts and sweet potatoes are two important products of 
these states, particularly of North Carolina. Stock of various 
kinds, as horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, is also raised, each plan- 
tation usually having some of these animals, as in other farm- 
ing districts. In the open pine forests of the Florida and 
Georgia coastal plains, large numbers of cattle are raised. 

An important animal in the South, and one which makes a 
strong draft animal well suited to a warm climate, is the mule. 
On the fertile plains, especially in Tennessee and Kentucky, 
much attention is paid to raising mules and fine breeds of horses. 

Grazing. — In western Texas, where the rainfall is in- 
sufficient for agriculture, grazing is the chief industry. 
The climate is so dry that the grass cures and becomes 
hay while still upon the ground, thus offering such excel- 
lent food for cattle and sheep that ranching is a thriving 
business. One may travel for two or three hundred miles 



218 



THE UNITED STATES 




westward over 4 the plains, seeing little else than a ranch- 
house here and there, with an occasional herd of cattle or 

sheep, and cow- 
boys riding to 
and fro. 

While- there is 
no reason for 
large cities in this 
section, and the 
life of the cow- 
boys and sheep 
herders is a lonely one, it is their work that helps to supply 
our tables with meat and to cover our bodies with woollen 
clothing and with shoes. Explain how hundreds of New 
England families are dependent for their daily meat upon 
the products of these distant ranches. Here is a case in 
which the most densely populated section is intimately 
related to a very sparsely settled portion of the country. 



Fig. 171. 
Cattle on the Great Plains of the West. 



Mineral Products 

Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron ore constitute the prin- 
cipal mineral wealth of the South. These two minerals 
occur among the mountain ranges all the way from Penn- 
sylvania to the Southern States. They are mined in sev- 
eral places, as near Chattanooga in eastern Tennessee 
but the most noted of all is a district at the extreme end 
of the Appalachian system around Birmingham, Alabama. 
This region is so rich in these products that it now ranks 
as the second iron-producing section of the continent. 

We learned that Pennsylvania enjoyed a great advan- 
tage in having iron ore and coal near together ; but in 



SOUTHERN STATES 219 

Birmingham even more favorable conditions are found. 
That city has grown up in the midst of a valley, around 
the margin of which are found iron ore, coal, and lime- 
stone, the three materials necessary for the production of 
iron and steel. In consequence, this section has become a 
great manufacturing centre. 

Stone. — A large amount of building stone, especially gran- 
ite and marble, is found in northern Georgia ; and near Knox- 
ville, in eastern Tennessee, much marble of different colors is 
quarried. What city in Vermont is likewise noted for marble ? 
(p. 135.) 

Gold and Precious Stones. — In the mountainous portion of 
western Georgia and North Carolina there is a gold-producing 
belt which formerly yielded much gold, and from which con- 
siderable is still obtained. Occasionally, too, precious stones, 
as sapphires and diamonds, are found among the gravels. 

Phosphates. — The soil of farms often becomes worn out and 
needs a fertilizer. There are various kinds of fertilizers, such 
as manure and bone-dust, which furnish the plant-food needed 
by the crops ; but one of the most important fertilizers is min- 
eral phosphate. This is found in great quantities in Florida 
and in Charleston harbor. It is a deposit in which are found 
fossil remains of many animals, such as the teeth of sharks, and 
the bones and teeth of many large land animals. Among the 
latter is the huge mastodon, which lived in this country long 
before white men came. This fertilizer is so valuable that it 
is shipped to the Northern States from Charleston, Jackson- 
ville, and Tampa, to be used on the farms. 

Manufacturing 

Birmingham, the Leading manufacturing centre of the 
South, is located on an old cotton plantation. In 1880 it 
had a population of 3,086 ; but it now contains sixty thou- 
sand persons. What special advantage has it ? In this 



220 



THE UNITED STATES 



city, as in Pittsburg and Allegheny, the iron ore is re- 
duced to iron in blast furnaces (p. 176), and then changed 
to steel and various other useful articles. Several other 
cities near the mountains are also noted for their iron 
manufacturing, as Rome and Atlanta, Georgia, and 
Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

Before the^war there was practically no manufacturing in the 
South. One reason for this was that water power is not com- 
mon there, and another that the negroes, who did most of the 
manual labor, lacked the training necessary to handle machin- 
ery. At that time 
practically all of 
the slaves were 
unable to read or 
write ; but now 
only about half 
of the colored peo- 
ple are illiterate. 
The raw materi- 
als were shipped 
away, and manu- 
factured articles 
brought back. 
Thus the cotton went to England and New England, some of 
it to be returned in the form of clothes ; and the lumber was 
shipped to various Northern cities to be sent back in the form 
of furniture. The iron ore was not mined at all. 







Fig. 172. 
A cotton factory at Huntsville, Alabama. 



This situation is now changing. Since the war the 
Southerners have become engaged more actively in labor ; 
many Northerners have moved into the South, and the 
negroes have been advancing. The South is awakening 
to its great opportunities, and the hum of factories is be- 
ginning to be heard in many places. The iron industry 



SOUTHERN STATES 221 

is already well developed, and each year new cotton mills 
are being erected. 

Some idea of what one of these cotton mills means may be 
gained from a certain one in Alabama. It employs 600 hands, 
including men, women, boys, and girls, and pays them about 
$2000 per week in wages. Each day this mill consumes 15 
bales of cotton, averaging about 500 pounds ; and since the 
average yield per acre of land is about 250 pounds, you can 
easily estimate about how many acres of cotton are called for 
in one year by this one mill. White people are employed be- 
cause negroes are generally believed to lack the intelligence 
necessary for such work. But in some places employers are 
beginning to hire the negro. 

Texas raises more cotton than any other state, but most 
of it is still shipped away. In that state, in 1897, there 
were only four cotton mills, while North Carolina had 
about 200. Nor is there much cotton manufacturing in 
Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 

Formerly the cotton seeds were slowly picked out of the 
cotton by hand, and then thrown away. Whitney's invention 
of the Cotton Gin, 1 in 1793, enabled one laborer to separate 
from the seed as much as 1000 pounds in the time that was 
formerly required to clean five or six by hand. That, of course, 
made cotton raising far more profitable, and had an immense 
influence upon the amount produced, as well as upon the num- 
ber of slaves needed. 

Instead of being thrown away, the cotton seeds are now saved. 
There are two or three pounds of seeds to one pound of fibre ; 
and since one acre, on the average, produces about 250 pounds of 
seedless cotton, the quantity of seed from a 600-acre plantation 
is very large. It was an immense loss when the seeds were 
thrown away ; but now a kind of oil, called cotton-seed oil is 

1 Gin is merely an abbreviation for engine. 



222 



THE UNITED STATES 



extracted from them, which is used in making soap, imitation 
butter, and a substitute for olive oil. Further than that, the 

part of the seed that 
is left after the oil 
is pressed out, has 
been found to be an 
excellent food for 
cattle and a good 
fertilizer. 




Fig. 173. 

Bags of cotton being hoisted into a building to 
have the seed removed by the cotton gin. 



While hundreds 
of Southern cities 
and towns now 
manufacture cot- 
ton cloth and cot- 
ton - seed oil, the 
most noted are 
Columbia and 
Geeenville, South Carolina, Charlotte, North Caro- 
lina, and Augusta, Columbus, and Atlanta, Georgia. 
What cities in New England are likewise noted for cotton 
manufacture ? How do they compare in size with these ? 
(See tables, pp. 448-453.) 

Some of the other articles manufactured in the South 
have already been mentioned, as furniture and other 
objects from Avood (p. 207), tobacco (p. 209), and sugar 
(p. 215). In each case this work is confined mainly to the 
section in which the raw material is raised. For example : 
New Orleans, in the midst of sugar plantations, has 
large sugar refineries ; Macon, Montgomery, Mobile, 
Chattanooga, Memphis, and Little Rock, all in the 
neighborhood of forests, produce lumber and furniture ; 
and Raleigh, Durham, and other cities in northern North 



SOUTHERN STATES 223 

Carolina, manufacture tobacco. Which of the manufac- 
turing cities mentioned are on the fall line ? (Fig. 123.) 

Another section of the South is also noted for its tobacco 
factories, namely, Key West, on a small coral key, south of 
the Florida peninsula. It is so near Cuba that the Havana 
tobacco, so much prized by cigar smokers, is easily obtained. 
There is also cigar manufacturing at Tampa. Why there ? 

Leading Cities and Shipping Routes 

The largest cities so far studied have been located at 
points on the water where the shipping advantages are 
superior, and where numerous factories have consequently 
located. Give examples. For reasons already mentioned, 
the Southern States have not so many fine harbors as the 
Northern States (p. 20). Besides that, although many 
factories have recently been built, the people are still 
mainly engaged in farming. On these accounts we can- 
not expect to find so many or so large cities as in the 
North ; and most of those that do exist may be looked for 
either on the Mississippi River or on the coast. 

New Orleans. — The greatest of all Southern cities is 
New Orleans, the largest city in the United States south 
of St. Louis. It has a population of about 300,000, or 
more than half as many as Boston, and is therefore the 
thirteenth in size in the United States. When we recall 
the advantages of New York's water connection with the 
West, we can readily explain the growth of New Orleans. 
Pittsburg on the Ohio, St. Paul on the Mississippi, and 
Kansas City on the Missouri, may all be reached from 
New Orleans by boat (Fig. 97). How do these distances 
compare with those from New York to Chicago and to Du- 
luth ? Also how far apart are Pittsburg and Kansas City ? 




Fig. 174. 
Map to show location of New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



225 



New Orleans is situated at the gateway to the most 
productive valley in North America. The city is located 
about 100 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi, at a 
point to which ocean vessels can ascend, although they 
dare not venture much beyond it. On the map (Fig. 174) 
you will see that an arm of the sea, called Lake Pont- 
chartrain, reaches up to the city, and that New Orleans is 
located at the place where the river and lake are nearest 




Fig. 175. 

Loading a river steamer at the levee in New Orleans. A large sugar refinery 
is seen in the distance, on the left. 

together. The stream there makes a bend in the form 
of a half-circle, which explains the reason for the name of 
Crescent City, commonly applied to New Orleans. 

That particular spot was selected because the sail boats 
of two centuries ago could reach it by crossing the lake, 
while they could not sail a hundred miles up the river with- 
out great difficulty. The large ocean steamers now in use 
cannot enter the lake on account of the shallow water, 



226 



THE UNITED STATES 



but must reach the city by the river route. This they can 
easily do, since they depend upon steam instead of wind. 

Much of the land on which New Orleans rests is frequently 
below the level of the river. In fact, from Memphis south- 
ward, the land on -either side of the river is nothing but a 
low flood plain, spreading out for many miles, and often 
threatened with floods. The mighty river, receiving tribu- 
taries from regions thousands of miles apart, is charged with 
yellow mud, which gradually sinks to the bottom as the cur- 
rent becomes slower toward the mouth. This has budt up 
the bed of the river, so that at high water the floods would 
spread over the broad flood plains if these were not protected by 
strong walls of earth, called levees. In spite of their strength, 
these embankments occasionally give way, especially in the 
springtime, when the snows are melting in the North; then 
the destruction to Ii£& and property is appalling. At such 

times, hundreds of men pa- 
trol the levees night and 
day to check the slightest 
leak. Even a hole made 
by a crawfish may be the 
beginning of an awful in- 
undation. Why ? 

Some peculiar conse- 
quences result from this 
condition. The soil on which 
New Orleans stands is nat- 
urally very wet. Indeed, 
in digging foundations for 
buildings, water is reached 
a short distance below the 
surface. On that account, there can be no cellars under the 
houses, and it is difficult to provide proper drainage. 

Since the city once belonged to France (p. 98), French is 
still a common language there, one person in six being of 
French stock. About one person in four is colored. 




Fig. 176. 

A view in a cemetery in New Orleans, 
where the ground is so wet that the 
dead must he placed in stone tombs 
ahove ground. 



SOUTHERN STATES 227 

Since frost seldom reaches this city, the midwinter weather 
is rarely colder than the occasional frosty, early autumn even- 
ings of the North. What must be the effect of this climate 
upon the style of houses ? Also upon the presence of birds, 
flowers, and fruits in winter, and the appearance of the trees ? 

Knowing the farm products in this region, we have 
a key to the exports from this point. New Orleans is an 
important cotton market and a centre for sugar, molasses, 
and rice, besides being a shipping point for products 
from farther up the Mississippi Valley. 

Like New York, this city is now connected with the 
distant interior cities by rail as well as by water. The 
Illinois' Central Railway extends all the way to Chicago, 
running parallel to the river for much of the distance ; 
the Louisville and Nashville reaches Louisville and St. 
Louis ; and the Southern Railway runs most of the dis- 
tance from New Orleans to Washington, connecting with 
the Southern Pacific, which extends westward, across 
Texas, to California. 

Memphis and Atlanta. — The cities next in size are 
Memphis and Atlanta (Fig. 174), each having about 
one hundred thousand inhabitants. The former is situ- 
ated in Tennessee, on a bluff where the Mississippi River 
swings out upon its broad flood plain. Why is that a 
favorable location? Memphis is one of the great cotton 
centres and lumber markets of the South. 

Atlanta, the " Gate City," is one of the few large 
cities not located upon a water route. Northeast of it, 
for over 350 miles, there is no easy pass across the moun- 
tains ; a^nd until 1880 no railway crossed the mountain 
ranges in all that distance. Near where Atlanta stands, 
however, there is a good route ; and railways reaching 



228 THE UNITED STATES 

westward from the Carolinas or northern Georgia come 
together there, making Atlanta a great railway centre. 
Cotton and tobacco are two of its leading articles of trade, 
and the iron industry is also important, since the city is 
not far from the Birmingham iron mines. 

Other Cities. — Recalling the rough nature of the pla- 
teaus west of the Appalachians, we can see the reason for 
the location of Chattanooga. It is on the Tennessee 
River at a point which makes it a gateway in much the 
same sense as Atlanta. It is on this account that Chatta- 
nooga was such an important point during the Civil War, 
as was Atlanta also. 

Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, has saw-mills, 
furniture factories, and flour-mills. Being in the midst of 
a splendid farming country, it is a distributing point for 
supplies to the neighboring towns and farms. It is also 
one of the educational centres of the South, having Van- 
derbilt University and other important schools. There 
are several other well-known universities in the South. 

Name the leading coast cities of the Southern States. They 
are chiefly engaged in shipping cotton and lumber, and most 
of them are located near the mouths of rivers, so that their 
goods may be brought to them by water as well as by rail. 
The two best known are Charleston and Savannah, both 
noted shipping points even before the Civil War. In Florida 
is located Tampa, a port from which steamboats go to Cuba. 

Since cotton is raised to be shipped away, there has been 
need of a large number of small shipping ports along the 
rivers and coast. Therefore, besides the cities already named, 
most of which are extensively engaged in cotton shipping, we 
find the cotton ports of Vicksburg, Natchez, and Baton 
Rouge, on the Mississippi, and Shreveport and Little Rock 
on tributaries to that river. 



SOUTHERN STATES 229 

Texas. — This state is the largest in the Union. Find 
how it compares with New England in size (Fig. 97). 
The western third of the state, as was stated on page 205, 
is fitted mainly for grazing, although there is some min- 
ing in the mountains. Throughout that entire section 
there are no cities and almost no large towns, except in 
the extreme western corner, where El Paso is situated. 
The word El Paso means " the pass " in Spanish, for 
this city is situated at a pass in the Rocky Mountains, 
through which the Southern Pacific Railway passes west- 
ward, while an important line extends southward into 
Mexico. El Paso is at one of the gateways into Mexico 
and is therefore an important railway centre. 

East of the arid and semi-arid plateau is the fertile 
cotton belt. In this there are many cities, such as Dal- 
las and Fort Worth — both shipping points, not only 
for cotton but also for cattle from the Western plains. 
Dallas is also a busy manufacturing city. Austin, the 
capital, is a beautiful city on the Colorado River, and 
San Antonio is a quaint Mexican town; for Texas once 
belonged to the Mexicans, but declared its independence 
in 1836, after which (1845) it was taken into the Union. 

Two of the largest cities of Texas are Houston, near 
the coast, and Galveston, the principal seaport west 
of New Orleans. Immense quantities of cotton and other 
products are shipped from Galveston. It is also a port 
of outlet for goods from the Far West. 

The Territories. — We have already learned something 
about the Indian Territory (p. 103). There is much min- 
eral wealth in this territory ; but, owing to the fact that 
the Indians own the land, little can be done to develop it 
at present. 



230 



THE UNITED STATES 



Oklahoma, like Texas, is mainly a great plain, arid 
in the western part, but in the eastern half a fertile, 
agricultural district. The principal products are corn 
in the north and cotton in the south. It was formerly a 

part of the In- 
dian Territory, 
but in 1890 was 
opened to set- 
tlers. Since then 
its growth has 
been so marvel- 
lous that almost 
all the farm land 
is now occupied 
and tilled, al- 
though none of the farm buildings are so old that the 
shingles have lost their newness. There are two flourish- 
ing cities, — Oklahoma and Guthrie, — and the terri- 
tory already has enough inhabitants to warrant its request 
to be admitted as a state. 




Fig. 177. 
Scene on an Indian reservation. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography 
of these states: — the plains and their products; the mountains; the 
Texas plains ; the coast — its bars, harbors, and coral keys. (2) Tell 
about the climate: — how it differs from the North; the climate of 
the mountains ; the crops ; the winter resorts ; the summer resorts ; 
the arid section. (3) How do the forests and methods of lumbering 
differ from those of Maine ? (4) Which cities have important lum- 
ber industries? (5) What besides lumber is obtained in the forests? 
(6) What about tobacco raising in the South ? (7) Tell about cot- 
ton : — the effect in encouraging slavery ; amount produced ; where 
grown; method of planting and picking. (8) Do the same for rice ; 
and tell, also, what it is used for. (9) Describe the sugar industry: — 



SOUTHERN STATES 231 

source of sugar ; where the sugar-cane grows, and why ; method of 
planting and harvesting; change to sugar, — where done, methods 
employed, and products obtained. (10) What fruits are raised in 
the South? AVhy there? What is done with them? (11) What 
other crops are important? (12) Where is grazing carried on? 
Why there ? How are we dependent upon these ranchmen ? 
(13) Where are coal and iron found? (14) What great natural 
advantages has Birmingham? (15) What other mineral products are 
obtained? (16) Tell about the phosphate: — where found; origin; 
uses; from what ports shipped. (17) Where is iron manufacturing 
carried on? (18) Tell about manufacturing in the South: — former 
condition; present change; importance of a single cotton factory; 
the cotton gin; uses of cotton seed; cities engaged in cotton manu- 
facturing ; cities engaged in other manufacturing. (19) Why are there 
not so many large cities in the South as in the North ? (20) Tell 
about New Orleans: — the reason for its importance; why located 
just where it is; the need of levees; the inhabitants; the climate; 
the industries. (21) For what are Memphis and Atlanta impor- 
tant? (22) Chattanooga and Nashville? (23) What about the 
river ports? (24) The seaports? (25) Tell about Texas : — its size; 
industries ; principal cities. (26) Tell about the two territories. 

Review by States: North Carolina (N.C.). — (1) Which part is 
mountainous ? Name and locate the highest peak in the East. 
(2) What two plains in this state ? (3) Which cities are mentioned 
in the text? Where is each? For what important? (4) What capes 
on the coast? (5) What are the industries? (See Figs. 324-349.) 
(6) Draw an outline map of this state like that of Maine ; and later 
do the same for each of the other states. 

Tennessee (Tenn.). — (7) Where are the mountains? The plains? 
(8) Name two cities among the mountains. For what is each impor- 
tant? (9) Answer the same question for two other cities in Tennes- 
see. (10) Which city is the largest? (See table, p. 448.) (11) What 
large river drains the state? Through what two large tributaries? 
(12) What industries in this state? 

South Carolina (S.C.). — (13) Describe the physiography of this 
state. (14) What are the principal industries? (15) What city on 
the fall line? On the seacoast? For what is each important? 
(16) Which city is largest? (See table, p. 448.) 

Georgia (Ga.). — (17) Where are the mountains? (18) The plains? 
(19) What are the industries in each section ? (20) Trace the fall 
line across the state (Fig. 123). What cities are on it? (21) Why is 



232 THE UNITED STATES 

Atlanta situated where it is ? (22) How does it compare in size with 
the largest city in the three states just mentioned ? (23) How does it 
compare in size with New Orleans, Boston, Buffalo, and Providence? 
(24) Name the two seaports. What do they ship ? 

Florida (Fla.) — (25) Why are there so many lakes in Florida? 
(See p. 21.) (26) What about the relief? (27) What about the cli- 
mate ? How does this influence the crops ? (28) What Florida cities 
were mentioned, and for what is each important? (29) What min- 
eral product comes from Florida? (30) What is the principal indus- 
try at Key West? Why? (31) What group of islands lies east of 
the southern end of Florida? 

Alabama (Ala.). — (32) Trace the fall line across this state. What 
cities are situated on it? (33) Where is Mobile? For what is it im- 
portant? (34) Describe the location and industries of Birmingham. 
(35) What crops are raised in Alabama? (36) What cities are 
engaged in manufacturing cotton ? (37) In lumber manufacturing ? 
(38) Compare Mobile in size with Atlanta and Birmingham. 

Mississippi (Miss.). — (39) Why is there no seaport ? (40) In what 
way can the products of the state be shipped by water ? (41) From 
what cities? (42) What are the products? (43) Why no mining? 
(44) What reasons can you give why there is so little manufacturing ? 

Louisiana (La.). — (45) State the reasons for the great importance 
of New Orleans. (46) Why has it a better location than Mobile or 
Charleston ? (47) Compare it in size with those cities. (48) With 
New York, Boston, and Baltimore. (49) What large tributary enters 
the Mississippi in Louisiana? (50) What crops are raised in Louisi- 
ana? Why there ? (51) Tell how the delta is caused to grow. 

Arkansas (Ark.). — (52) What large river enters the Mississippi 
in this state? (53) There is considerable forest in Arkansas. In 
what part should you expect to find most of it ? (54) Is Arkansas in 
the cotton belt ? (See Fig. 330.) (55) The capital is the largest city. 
Compare it in size with Memphis. Why is it less favorably situated 
than that city ? (56) Compare it in the same way with New Orleans. 

Texas (Tex.). — (57) Where are the mountains? (58) Are there 
forests on the western plains? Why? (59) What are the industries 
there ? (60) What city in the western part ? Why there ? (61). AVhat 
are the industries in eastern Texas? (62) What cities are mentioned 
in the text as being in eastern Texas? (63) For what is Galveston 
noted? (64) Compare it in size with New Orleans, Charleston, and 
Boston. (65) What products should you expect to find sent from 
here? (66) How many times larger than Rhode Island is Texas? 



SOUTHERN STATES 233 

(For area, see table, p. 445.) Than Pennsylvania? (67) Add to- 
gether the areas of all the New England and Middle Atlantic States, 
and compare the total with the area of Texas. (68) Compare the 
population of Texas with that of Massachusetts (see table, p. 445). 
Compare it with that of New York City (see table, p. 447). 

Indian Territory (I.T.). — (69) What disadvantages do you see in 
the fact that this region is owned by the Indians ? (70) Describe an 
Indian reservation (see p. 103). 

Oklahoma. (Ok.). — (71) What about the climate of the western 
part? (72) What crops are raised in the eastern part? (73) Into 
what river does the territory drain ? (74) Name the two cities. 

General. — (75) Which is the smallest state? (76) Compare it 
with Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. (77) State the principal 
industries of the South. (78) Of what advantage is it that they 
are so different from those of the North? (79) Add together the 
populations of the ten largest cities, and compare the result with 
the total for the ten largest in the New England States (see table, 
p. 448). In the Middle Atlantic States. 

Suggestions. — (1) Examine a floor made of Georgia pine. 
(2) Show several ways in which New England and the Southern 
States are dependent on each other. (3) What would be the effect 
on the cotton manufacturing of England if the United States engaged 
in war with that country? (4) Find what the effect was at the 
time of the Civil War. (5) Near what places were some of the 
great battles of the war fought? (6) What other inventions can 
well be compared with that of the cotton gin in importance? 
(7) Try raising some rice in the schoolroom. (8) Raise some 
tobacco, cotton, and sugar-cane. (9) About how much sugar does 
your family use each year ? (10) Explain more fully why the cul- 
tivation of rice is unhealthful work. (11) Examine a pineapple. 
(12) Find some pictures of orange and lemon groves. (13) What 
reasons can you give for expecting the cotton mills in New England 
to prove less profitable, now that the South is developing such mills? 
(14) Find out how much farther it is from New Orleans to London 
than from New York. What effect should you think its greater distance 
from Europe would haveon the growth of New Orleans ? (15) Through 
what waters would a boat go from New Orleans to Kansas City? To 
Pittsburg? To Chicago? To San Francisco? (16) Make a drawing 
of the Southern States, putting in the chief rivers and cities. 

For References, see page 440. 



XL CENTRAL STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Name the large rivers of this group. Draw 
a sketch map showing them. (2) Draw a sketch map of the five 
Great Lakes. (3) Locate upon each of those sketches the cities printed 
in large type (those over two hundred thousand inhabitants). (4) Are 
any of the very large cities not situated on rivers or lakes ? Why ? 
(5) What advantages have these cities from their location ? (6) Ex- 
amine Figure 13 to see how far the glacier reached in these states. 
Do you find any lakes south of that line? (7) What influence must 
the Great Lakes have upon the summer climate of places near them? 
Upon the winter climate ? (8) Compare the isothermal charts (Figs. 
63 and 61) with the map (Fig. 178) to see near what cities the iso- 
therms pass. (9) Why is the interior colder in winter and warmer in 
summer than the coast? (10) State some ways in which the Great 
Lakes must have influenced the development of the West. 

Physiography and Climate. — A hundred j-ears ago, 
when a considerable number of pioneers pushed across 
the Appalachian Mountains into Ohio and Kentucky, 
the}^ were gladdened by the sight of immense tracts of 
level land. For hundreds of miles the plains slope gently 
toward the Mississippi ; and then, beyond that river, they 
slowly rise again for hundreds of miles to the very base 
of the Rocky Mountains. In a few places, as in western 
South Dakota and southern Missouri, low mountains rise 
above the plains ; but most of the country is a vast level 
tract, quite unlike the hilly and mountainous region far- 
ther east. What are the names of the mountains of the 
Central States? (Fig. 178.) 

234 . 



105 



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CENTRAL STATES *" 

Scale of Miles. 
25 50 . 75 100 200 S< 

Cities with over 1,000,000: . . . ClllCagO 

Cities with 500,000 to 1,000,000:. .St.LOlUS 

Cities with 200,000 to 500,000: Buffalo 

Cities with 50,000 to 200,000: Toledo 

Cities with 25,000 to 50,000: Lexington 

Smaller Places: Alpena 

Capitals with less than 25,000:. .Charleston 
Capitals of States: ® Other Cities: • 




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Jay Cityai- aJ , CUy 

> /Sagin flW \ W r 






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Racine 



Lansing take 
, ^ ,. •- St.Clmf/ 
Battle Creek i DetVOlW 

ockford U ' KaHtaaaoo" Jackson* Alin ArborU^j ^ 



I N|0 V I S J 

>ringfield 

® 
cksonville I _^, 

Alton 

East S/. Lo'uis 
Be/lieville 



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. nT^SS^ ! L^ So °''Fort Wayn 

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j r-^^JlanonHj^ cTLJH r 1 Stei beaV f |\ 3 

Danville. ( ^™f?K A> SpriWfl'ld T| Z '" \1 

I IndUraaW»»S I /Hamilton *i Pv J „ 

re ir eijtu'te < i/Vcincinnati> ^Aj ,®R b i - 

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New Albany rf IF \ 

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West 



from Greenwich 




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236 THE UNITED STATES 

Not only did the settlers find the land level, but most 
of it was free from forests and boulders. In many por- 
tions of New England weeks of hard labor were required 
to remove the trees from a single acre, and many days to 
drag away or bury the boulders. On the broad plains, 
however, such labor was unnecessary, for there were hun- 
dreds of thousands of square miles covered only with 
grass. These treeless plains became known as the prairies. 

Possibly at one time the prairies of the Mississippi Valley 
were largely wooded ; but frequent fires, started by the Indians 
in order to frighten the bison (Figs. 71 and 76) and other wild 
game from cover, and drive them to places where they might 
be slaughtered, had cleared away much of the forest. Even 
since white men have settled in Kentucky, the Indians have 
removed some of the forest in this manner. 

While boulders are abundant in some places, the glacier 
has in most sections left a deep, rich soil, free from stones. 
The reason for this is, that here the glacier found softer 
rocks to grind up into soil than in New England, and was 
therefore more easily able to reduce them to small frag- 
ments. In many sections, as in parts of Illinois, Indiana, 
and Ohio, the glacial drift is one or two hundred feet deep. 
It is the deposit of this drift which has caused the thou- 
sands of lakes in Minnesota and other states. 

The summers are too short for cotton, but they are long 
and hot enough for numerous other crops. The rainfall 
is also sufficient for crops, except in the extreme western 
part, which is arid, like western Texas (p. 205). 

Settlement of the Mississippi Valley. — The conditions 
seemed favorable for agriculture ; and, in spite of danger 
from Indians, the settlers poured across the gaps in the 
mountains, following the Great Lakes or the Ohio River 



CENTRAL STATES 237 

and its tributaries. At first only a few ventured in, trav- 
elling until they reached a spot which suited their fancy. 
There they built rude log huts, and settled down to a 
solitary existence, one family being perhaps miles away 
from its nearest neighbor. 

As more persons came and wished to proceed farther 
westward, they built flatboats to navigate the rivers, and 
they settled in groups along the river banks, forming vil- 
lages which soon grew into towns and cities. Their life 
was of the simplest kind, each family depending largely 
upon itself for whatever it needed (First Book, p. 82). 
Some articles had to be purchased ; for though the rich 
soil produced abundant crops, the pioneers still needed 
sugar, cotton cloth, tools, and medicines. Since almost 
all this region drained into the Mississippi, the most 
accessible place where such supplies could be obtained 
was New Orleans. Consequently the products of the farm 
were floated on flatboats to that point, and there sold or 
exchanged for the articles desired. 

A great improvement was made when steam came into use. 
The first steamboat on these Western rivers was the New Or- 
leans, which started out from Pittsburg in 1811. " As it ran 
down the Ohio, making extraordinary speed in comparison 
with anything before known, the quiet denizens of the forests 
along the river banks were amazed and frightened by the 
strange apparition. Not a few of the more ignorant folk 
thought the Day of Judgment was at hand, as they watched 
the showers of sparks and heard the rush of the wheels. And 
when the craft stopped at Louisville, well along in the night, 
and let off steam, the roar from the escape-pipes brought a 
good share of the town tumbling out of their beds to see what 
was the matter." l 

1 "The United States of America," by N. S. Shaler, Vol. I, p. 296. 



238 THE UNITED STATES 

Canals, similar to the Erie Canal in New York (p. 182), 
were also made, and the benefits of another invention 
began to be felt in 1827. In that year the first railway 
was built in the United States ; and, as years passed, 
railway lines were so extended that even those regions 
that were at a distance from the rivers could be reached 
easily and quickly. 

These several improvements in the manner of travelling 
and carrying freight have exerted an immense influence 
upon the rapidity with which the Mississippi Valley has 
been settled. While 150 years had been consumed in 
pushing the settlements westward to Ohio and Kentucky, 
it required less than one-quarter of that time to extend 
them twice that distance farther west. Now, in spite of 
the great cities along the Atlantic coast, more people are 
living west of Cincinnati than east of it (Fig. 328), and 
the greater part of these are in the Mississippi Valley. 
Altogether, including the Southern States, that valley 
now supports a population of about 30,000,000. Large 
numbers of the settlers have come from Europe, especially 
from Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland. 

Agriculture 

Millions of persons in Europe and in our coast cities 
look to this valley for their bread, meat, and other food, 
as they look to the South for cotton. 

A Farm in Central Ohio. — All the way from eastern 
Ohio to central Nebraska, agriculture is a very important 
industry. The farms vary greatly in size, from a few 
acres to several thousand, but they usually contain from 
80 to 160 acres. In the main, they resemble the one in 
Ohio that is described below. 




Fig. 180. 
Scenes on a farm in Ohio. Tell what you see in each picture. 



240 THE UNITED STATES 

This Ohio farm of 160 acres has a house upon it in 
which the family lives, with a barn near by for horses, 
milch cows, and hay, and with a few sheds around it for 
grain and farming implements. 

A windmill in the rear keeps the milk house well sup- 
plied with cold water, and also fills the water troughs in 
the barnyard. On one side is an orchard having apple, 
peach, and pear trees, with a few rows of berry bushes in 
one part, and a chicken house in another, where enough 
chickens are raised to supply some meat, and all the eggs 
that are needed, with perhaps some to sell. On one side 
of the front yard are a few beehives, and back of them, 
between the orchard and the barn, is a garden for vegeta- 
bles. Still back of that are several pig-pens, in which hogs 
are fattened for home use and also for the market. 

Farther away from the house are fields in which there 
are at least three or four different kinds of crops. Every 
farmer in that vicinity expects to grow corn, perhaps sixty 
acres of it, some grass for grazing and for hay, and wheat 
or some other kind of grain. After these crops are har- 
vested, they are either sold, or fed to stock — horses, 
cattle, hogs, or sheep — upon the farm. The latter plan 
is often followed, chiefly because it pays better to fatten 
stock and sell it than to sell the crops themselves. There 
are generally two or three good milch cows on hand, which 
not only supply the family with fresh milk and butter, 
but furnish some cream or butter to sell. 

Since there are only three other houses in sight of this 
farmhouse, and there is no store or post-office nearer 
than two and a half miles, the farmer and his family may 
not be able to visit with other persons for several days at 
a time, although they often see acquaintances driving by. 



CENTRAL STATES £41 

In the busier season, from spring till fall, they make few 
trips to town, and then mainly for groceries or mail, or to 
church on Sunday ; but at other times of the year they 
have leisure for reading, visiting, and other pleasures. 

Some persons would not care for such a life because it 
is too lonesome, and there is too much hard work con- 
nected with it. But this farmer enjoys it greatly, because 
lie likes to take care of his stock, to work in the soil, and 
to watch the crops grow. In addition to this, he is able to 
raise most of his own food, and his whole life is more inde- 



j 














1 


■ : ■ .'" 





Fig. 181. 
Threshing wheat on a farm in Ohio. 

pendent than that of persons in a village or city. From 
such farms have come some of our ablest and best-educated 
men. Can you name two Presidents who spent their 
childhood on farms of the Central States? Where were 
their homes ? What can you tell about their early life ? 

Fruits. — While each farm usually has a small orchard, like 
the one mentioned above, fruit raising is a special industry 
in those parts where climate and soil are favorable, as in the 
neighborhood of the Great Lakes. The immense area of water 
renders the summers cooler and the winters warmer than they 
would otherwise be. Accordingly, we find the Chautauqua 
grape belt (p. 167) extending from New York a long distance 



242 THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 182. 
A fruit orchard in Kansas, a state in which much fruit is raised. 

into Ohio ; and quantities of such fruit as peaches and apples 
are produced on the peninsula of Michigan. With what part 
of the Atlantic coast can this fruit regiou be best compared ? 
(p. 167.) 

Tobacco. — Tobacco is another product of importance in these 
states (Fig. 333). We have seen that its cultivation was one 
of the industries in Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee 
(pp. 166 and 209). W T est of these states there are also sections, 
in both Kentucky and Missouri, where the soil and climate are 
favorable to tobacco raising. Both Louisville and St. Louis 
are important tobacco markets. What other cities have the 
same industry ? (pp. 166 and 209.) 

Fine Stock in Kentucky. — Kentucky is famous for its 
blue grass in the neighborhood of Lexington, and for 
its fine stock, especially horses and mules. The reason why 
this grass is so nourishing is that much of the Kentucky 
soil is composed of bits of decayed limestone in which is 
found an abundance of lime phosphate, an excellent plant 
food (p. 219). This phosphate is supplied from the shells 
of small sea animals which were buried in the sea bottom 
millions of years ago. As the limestone decays, the phos- 
phate mixes with other rock bits and thus fertilizes the soil. 

Caverns. — The abundance of limestone in Kentucky is the 
reason for the numerous caves that exist there. Limestone, 
although hard, is more easily dissolved by water than other 



CENTRAL STATES 



243 



rocks ; and as the rain water seeps into the earth and enters 
the limestone along the joints, it slowly dissolves the rock 
away. In this manner many a long tunnel has been made, the 
largest that is known being the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. 

Not all parts of Mammoth Cave are yet known, but it is said 
that there are more than 150 miles of galleries. They are found 
to wind about irregularly, some being many feet below others, 
and all together form- 
ing a network, or laby- 
rinth, into which one 
dares not venture with- 
out a guide. The entire 
cavern is as dark as 
any mine, and the only 
sound to be heard is 
that of trickling water. 

Corn. — Corn rais- 
ing is one of the most 
important industries 
of the Central States 
(Fig. 324, p. 406). 
A farmer usually ex- 
pects to devote from 
one -third to one-half 
of his land to it ; 
therefore, in travelling across these states in summer, one 
sees corn-fields in every direction (Fig. 184). 

The seed is planted in rows in the spring time. Soon the 
little stalk appears above ground, growing rapidly during the 
hot summer months, until a height of from seven to ten feet is 
reached. In order to keep the soil soft and kill the weeds, the 
ground between the rows is ploughed when the corn is young ; 
but as it grows higher, the shade of its own leaves protects it 
both from drought and weeds. 




Fig. 183. 

A view in one of the Kentucky caverns, show- 
ing the icicle-like stalactites, which are 
made of limey matter deposited by the 
water which slowly trickles from the cave 
roof. 



244 



THE UNITED STATES 



A field usually presents the most beautiful appearance in 
July, when the corn " tassels out." The leaves then entirely 




Fig. 184. 
A field in Kansas entirely given over to corn. 

hide the ground from view for hundreds of acres, and the rich 
green stalks, with their long, slender leaves, bend to the 
breezes in the most graceful manner. If the stalk is to be 

used as fodder for cattle 
in winter, it is cut be- 
fore frost, when the 
kernels on the cob are 
still somewhat soft and 
milky, although much 
harder than the green 
corn which we eat. If 
left until after frost, the 
grain hardens, and then 
the harvest season be- 
gins. Men drive into the 
fields in wagons, and tear 
the husks from the ear, 
spending day after day 
at that kind of work. 




Fig. 185. 

Two ears of corn, one with the husk stripped 
down to show the kernels. 



Corn is put to many 
uses. Much that is 



CENTRAL STATES 245 

raised is fed to cattle and hogs, as already stated. Some 
is made into hominy and breakfast foods, or into corn 
meal for mush and corn bread. Starch is another prod- 
uct ; but one of the most extensive uses of the grain is in 
the manufacture of whiskey in a distillery. There are 
many distilleries in St. Louis, Louisville, and other 
cities within the corn belt. Peoria, in central Illinois, is 
another great centre for the manufacture of whiskey and 
other materials from corn. Much corn is shipped east- 
ward to the seaboard and beyond, and all the cities along 
the way make profit from handling it. 

Wheat. — This grain, like corn, is produced in all the 
Central States as well as in other parts of the country 
(Fig. 326, p. 407). It is an especially important product 
in Ohio and Indiana ; but the section which at present is 
most noted for wheat is the valley of the Red River of the 
North. In this valley is a strip of land, including western 
Minnesota, eastern Dakota, and a portion of Manitoba, 
which is one of the finest wheat regions in the world. 

One of the reasons for its fertility dates back to the time 
when the glacier was melting away from this region. The 
ice then stretched across the Red River valley, and forced 
that river to seek an outlet southward. A broad lake was 
thus formed, with an ice dam on the north, and in the water 
of this lake the sediment was deposited which forms much 
of the soil of the wheat region. When the ice melted en- 
tirely away from the valley, the Red River was once more 
able to flow northward, and then the lake disappeared. 

The land there is almost as level as the surface of the 
sea (Fig. 186) ; it is so level, in fact, that after a rain 
the water stands in shallow sheets in the fields. Also the 
roads need to be elevated a foot or more above the sur- 



246 



THE UNITED STATES 



rounding land, with ditches on either side. It is a dismal 
place in which to live, for in every direction there is 
nothing to break the view except a farmhouse every half 
mile or so, with a few trees around it. Over these open 
plains the wind sweeps with terrific force, somewhat as 
upon the ocean, and tierce, blinding snow squalls, or bliz- 
zards, are not uncommon. 

Upon these plains one may ride northward on the train 
toward Winnepeg all day long, and see scarcely a single crop 
besides wheat. Most of the farms are of moderate size, bnt 
some are enormons. For example, the Dalyrymple farm, at 
Casselton, [North Dakota, contains fifteen thousand acres. How 
many square miles is that ? 




Fig. 186. 

A view over the broad wheat fields of the Dalyrymple farm. A grain elevator, 
belonging to the farm, is seen in the distance where the Northern Pacific 
Railway runs. 



This farm is 
upon each. To 



divided into six parts, with farm buildings 
prepare the ground, from fifteen to twenty 
men at a time plough and sow the seed on each division. One 
takes the lead, the next follows close behind, then comes the 
third, fourth, and so on. The grain is harvested on a similar 
plan (Fig. 187). One hundred and twenty men and three hun- 
dred horses are employed in the planting season, and three 



CENTRAL STATES 



247 



hundred men during the harvest. As one acre usually pro- 
duces from fifteen to twenty bushels, an immense amount of 
grain is obtained from this one farm. 

The great quantity of wheat produced in the Red River 
valley of the North and the neighboring region has 
helped in the growth of the cities of Minneapolis, St. 
Paul, and Duluth. It has also influenced the growth 




Fig. 187. 
Harvesting wheat in the Red River valley. 

of scores of other cities along the Great Lakes, the Mis- 
sissippi River, and even on the Atlantic coast. Some of 
the largest of these are St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chi- 
cago, New York, and Baltimore. Explain how this 
can be. 

Other Grains. — Besides corn and wheat, two other grains are 
raised in great quantities in these states, namely, oats (Fig. 
188) and barley. The former is a common food for horses, but 
the latter is largely used in the manufacture of beer. The 
great breweries, to be seen in every large city, consume im- 
mense quantities of barley in order to obtain the malt which 
is needed in making beer. In Cincinnati and St. Louis, and 
in many other places, beer making is one of the important 
industries. Milwaukee is also noted for beer, much as Peoria 
is for distilled spirits. 



248 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 188. 
A field of oats almost ready to harvest. 

Cattle Ranching. — After passing westward from the 
fertile Red River valley of the North, one finds the farm- 
houses diminishing in number, and the country becoming 
more and more arid, until, beyond the 100th meridian, 
there is no farming without irrigation. At the same 
time one gradually rises higher and higher, until, near 
the base of the mountains, he has reached an elevation of 
fully a mile above the sea. This dry plateau, extending 
from Canada to southwestern Texas (p. 205), is commonly 
known as the Great Plains. 

At one time farmers, believing that the rainfall was increas- 
ing, settled in the eastern portion of these dry plains, especially 
in the extreme western part of Kansas. They succeeded well 
at first. But disastrous droughts soon followed, and the num- 
ber of abandoned farms and almost deserted towns is proof 
that this region, where the rainfall is less than twenty inches 
a year (Fig. 46), is not suited to farming. 

The entire semi-arid western half of the western tier 
of states — from Texas to North Dakota — is therefore 




Fig. 189. 

Scenes in the ranch country. Upper picture, a typical ranch house on the 
banks of a stream in western North Dakota. Middle picture, a ranch house 
and " the range." Lower picture, a group of cowboys at the ranch house. 



250 THE UNITED STATES 

devoted chiefly to ranching. Following is a description 
of ranch life in western North Dakota, which much 
resembles such life in other states : — 

There is little water anywhere else than in the widely sepa- 
rated streams ; and there are almost no trees except upon their 
banks. As the ranchman must have both water and timber, 
he locates his house (Fig. 250), with its few stockades or cor- 
rals, and sheds, within easy reach of these necessities. If 
there is no neighbor within several miles, it is all the better, 
for his cattle are then more certain of abundant grass. 




Fig. 190. 

A scene during a round-up, when great numbers of cattle are bunched 
together. 

Few fences are built, partly because it is necessary for the 
cattle to roam about at will in their search for food. The 
bunch grass, upon which they feed, is so scattered that they 
must walk a long distance each day to find enough to eat. 
A single ranchman may own from ten to twenty thousand 
head, and yet they are all allowed to wander about upon pub- 
lic land, called "the range." Usually they keep within a 
distance of thirty miles of the ranch house ; but sometimes 
they stray one or two hundred miles away. 

Twice a year there is a general collection, or round-up (Fig. 
190), of cattle, — the first round-up occurring in May or June, 
and the other early in the fall. One object of the first is to 
find the calves that have been born during the winter. 



CENTRAL STATES 



251 




Fig. 191. 

Picture showing the mother with her brand, a calf 
following her, and a cowboy about to catch the 
calf and brand it. 



Since there are few fences, cattle belonging to ranches which 
are even a hundred miles apart become mixed during the win- 
ter, and those in a large herd may belong to a score of different 
ranchmen. Each cattleman has a certain mark, or brand (Fig. 
191), such as a letter, 
a cross, a horseshoe, 
or some other de- 
vice, which must be 
burnt into the side 
of every cow; and 
that is the sole mark 
of ownership. 

A round-up, which 
lasts several weeks, 
is planned by a num- 
ber of ranchmen to- 
gether. A squad of 
perhaps twenty cowboys, accompanied by a wagon and pro- 
visions, a large number of riding horses, or "ponies," and a 
cook, go in one direction, and other wagons with similar outfits 
set out in other directions. Before separating in the morning, 
the members of a squad agree upon a certain camping place 
for the night, and then they scour the country to bring the cattle 
together, riding perhaps sixty or eighty miles during the day. 
Each ranchman knows his own cattle by the brand they bear; 
and since the calves follow their mothers, there is no diffi- 
culty in determining what brand they shall receive. After 
branding the calves, each ranchman drives his cattle home- 
ward to feed during the summer within a few dozen miles of 
their owner's home. 

The second large round-up is similar to the first, except that 
its object is to bring together the steers, or male cattle, and 
ship them away to market ; it is accordingly called the beef 
round-up. A ranchman who owns twenty thousand cattle may 
sell nearly half that number in a season. As the steers are 
collected they are loaded upon trains and shipped to Omaha, 
Kansas City, St. Louis, Chicago, and even farther east. 



252 



THE UNITED STATES 



Millions of cattle are slaughtered every year in these cities 
(Fig. 202), and the meat is sent to England and Germany, as 
well as to all parts of the United States. 

Very often the cattle find so little water, and such poor pas- 
turage, that they fail to fatten properly, and must be fed for a 
time. This may be done upon the irrigated fields near the 
rivers in the ranch country, or on the farms farther east, as 
in Kansas, Iowa, and Nebraska, and even in Illinois, Indiana, 
and Ohio. Thus we see how a great product of one section of 

the United States is made 
to furnish employment and 
food for millions of persons 
far away. 

The lives of ranchmen and 
cowboys are exciting and in- 
teresting, most of each day 
being spent in the saddle(Fig. 
192). They are so far sepa- 
rated from other people that 
they must take care of them- 
selves in a surprising num- 
ber of ways. For instance, 
a ranchman must build his 
own house, kill his own beef 
and dress it, put up his own 
ice, raise his own vegetables, 
do his own blacksmith! ng, 
find his own fuel, and even 




Fig. 192. 

A cowboy with his rope, or lariat, with 
which he captures the steers by throw- 
ing a noose over their necks, or around 
their legs. 



keep school for his children, if the latter receive an education. 
He affords a good example of the pioneer life in early days. 



Lumbering. — Although so much of the land is under 
cultivation, or given over to ranching, forests are found in 
many sections. When the region was first visited, most 
of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan was tree-covered, 
as well as much of Ohio, southern Indiana, and Illinois, 



CENTRAL STATES 



253 



and the Black Hills of western Dakota. Even now con- 
siderable forest is left, although there has been so much 
lumbering that large areas have been entirely cleared. 

In Wisconsin, for instance, in travelling northward 
from the well-cultivated southern portion, one comes to a 
section where farmers are just taking the place of lum- 
bermen. Many log huts stand there in small clearings, 
with the green fields still dotted by tree stumps ; but be- 
yond, little else than woods can be seen. In these forests 
are many different kinds of Northern trees, especially 




Fig. 193. 
Floating timber ou a stream in Wisconsin. 

the evergreens, such as hemlock, spruce, white pine, and 
cedar, and scattered hard woods, such as oak, birch, 
and maple. 

In the neighborhood of the Great Lakes lumbering is 
actively carried on, and in much the same manner as in 
Maine (Fig. 193), although a great deal of the timber is 
brought to the sawmills by wagons or rail, instead of being 
floated a long distance down stream. The excellent water 
power in the Mississippi River at Minneapolis early 
attracted large sawmills there and made that city famous 
for lumber (Fig. 207, p. 272). Other mills are situated 



254 



THE rXITED STATES 



farther clown the Mississippi, as at WiNONA. They are 
also numerous at Duluth, and at Superior just across 
the state line in Wisconsin. 

Near the forest regions, along the streams and on the 
shores of the Great Lakes, the manufacture of furniture 
and other articles of wood is an important industry. Chi- 
cago is especially noted for its manufacture of furniture ; 
and on many of the small streams of Minnesota, Wiscon- 
sin (Fig. 194), and Michigan, where there is water power, 




Fig. 194. 

A sawmill in Wisconsin. 



there are sawmills, furniture factories, and planing-mills. 
Some of these are at La Crosse and Oshkosh in Wiscon- 
sin, and Sagixaw. Bay City, and Grand Rapids in 
Michigan. Many school desks are made at the last place. 



Mineral Products 

Building Stone. — It has been stated (pp. 2 and 10) that the 
ocean once covered much of this section, and that layers of 
sediment deposited under the water have hardened into rock 



CENTRAL STATES 255 

strata, which have been raised to form the dry land. During 
their uplifting they were not folded and broken, as mountain 
rocks are, but the layers were left in a horizontal position, as 
when first laid down in the ocean. The streams, cutting their 
valleys downward through the soil, have brought many of these 
rock strata to light, and among them are beds of limestone 
and sandstone which are of value as building stones. 

Ohio and Indiana are especially noted for their limestone 
and sandstone, which are shipped in all directions for build- 
ing purposes. There are also slates and granites in the hilly 
and mountainous sections, as there are in hilly and moun- 
tainous New England (p. 133). 

Petroleum and Natural Gas. — Power for manufacturing 
is also abundantly provided in this region. When oil 
and natural gas were first discovered in New York and 
Pennsylvania, it was supposed that they did not exist 
elsewhere; but great quantities of both these substances 
are now obtained in Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia and 
other states. Many farmers, whose land is capable of pro- 
ducing only the usual crops, have suddenly found them- 
selves rich by the discovery of oil or gas in the rocks far 
beneath the soil. In fact, these materials are so abundant 
in some places, that towns have sprung up like mush- 
rooms, — as Findlay in western Ohio. The way in which 
gas and oil are formed, and the uses to which they are 
put, have already been described (p. 173). 

Coal. — This mineral fuel is much more widespread in 
the Central States than oil and gas. In some places the 
beds lie near the surface, like rock in quarries, and then 
coal mining is very simple ; in others it is buried so deep 
that long shafts must be sunk to reach it. Being so 
valuable a fuel for houses and manufactories, the coal is 
mined in many places. 



256 



THE UNITED STATES 



While Pennsylvania produces two kinds of coal, anthra- 
cite and bituminous, the Central States have only the 
latter variety. It is bituminous coal that is used in 
making coke : and because there is so much of this kind 
of coal, many of the cities of these states are engaged in 
iron manufacturing. Soft coal produces more smoke than 
the hard anthracite, and those cities which burn great 
quantities of it are very sooty in consequence. 

Iron Ore. — Formerly Pennsylvania was the chief iron- 
producing state, having both coal and iron ore ; but in 
recent years, ex- 
plorers in the for- 
est wilderness 
northwest of Lake 
Michigan, and 
near the western 
end of Lake Supe- 
rior, have discov- 
ered what seem to 
be inexhaustible 
beds of iron ore. 
In some places the ore is so soft that, like clay, it can be 
dug out by steam shovels, and so near the surface that 
the mines are open pits (Fig. 195). That is the case, for 
example, at Ishpemixg, in northern Michigan. 

This Lake Superior district is now the leading iron- 
producing centre in the world. The main difficulty, 
however, is the fact that there is no coal in that region. 
Consequently, in order that the ore may be reduced to the 
metal, either coal must be transported thither or the ore 
must be carried to the coal regions. The latter process 
has proved the cheaper. 




Fig. 195. 
An open iron mine in the Lake Superior district. 



CENTRAL STATES 



257 



Fortunately the ore deposits are located near waterways. 
If it were necessary to carry the iron ore a long distance by 
rail, the expense might 
be so great as seriously 
to check its production. 
As it is, however, the 
ore is mined, loaded 
upon cars, and sent over 
short lines of railway to 
the lake shore. Great 
ore docks (Fig. 197), or 
piers, reaching far out 
into deep water, have 
been constructed to hold 
the ore. Railway tracks 
are built upon the docks, 
and whole trains run out 
and speedily dump their contents into bins. On a single pier 
there are scores of bins, which together hold enough ore to fill 
several large vessels. When a vessel is to be loaded, it is moored 
to the pier (Fig. 198), and a door at the bottom of a bin is opened, 
allowing hundreds of tons of ore to slide out; then the next bin 
is emptied, and in this way the vessel is filled in a few hours. 




Fig. 196. 

Tunnels in one of the deeper iron mines in 
the Lake Superior district. 




Fig. 197. 
Iron ore piers at Ashland, Wis. 



Boats with such a cargo set out from the lake ports of 
Duluth, Superior, Ashland, and Marquette for manu- 



258 



THE UNITED STATES 



facturing centres all along the lakes. As the ore must 
reach a point where coal is easily obtained, it is taken to 
Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, etc. Notice 
how close to these cities the coal beds extend (Fig. 337). 




Fig. 198. 
A lake boat loading with iron ore at the docks (Fig. 197). 

The Lake Superior iron district is in three states, — 
Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, the most important 
being Michigan (Fig. 339), and the least important Wis- 
consin. These three states together produce seventeen 
times as much ore as Pennsylvania. The sudden develop- 
ment of mining in this region has brought so many people 
that numerous towns and cities have grown up ; but the 
lack of coal has prevented much iron manufacturing. 

Copper. — Another very important metal found in the 
Central States is copper. This occurs in the pores of a 
lava rock and between the grains of a pebble beach which, 
though now hardened into rock, was formed in the ancient 
sea. Indians and the early explorers found fragments of 
copper on the surface, and mines were later opened in 



CENTRAL STATES 259 

the lava and beach rocks of the small peninsula marked 
Mineral Range on the map (Fig. 178). 

Some of these mines are very deep, one of the shafts reach- 
ing to a depth of about a mile. When the ore is drawn to the 
surface, it is found mixed with so much beach rock and lava, 
that it must be crushed to a powder under powerful hammers, 
or stamps; then water is run over it in order to carry away the 
bits of rock and leave the heavier particles of copper. Even 
after this, some foreign substances are still mixed with the 
copper. Since the purposes for which this metal is used de- 
mand that it be very pure, it must next be placed in a large 
smelter to be melted and thus separated from the impurities. 
Among the latter is a little silver, which is saved. The pure 
copper is then run out and cooled in bars to be shipped away. 

The largest mines in this region are near together, and so 
many men are required to obtain the ore, and change it to pure 
metal, that towns of large size have grown up in a wilderness 
which otherwise could scarcely have attracted many people. 
Within a few miles of two or three of the most important 
mines are a number of towns having a total population of fifty 
thousand, the largest being Calumet. Many of these persons 
are miners and families of miners ; but there must, of course, 
be storekeepers, physicians, teachers, ministers, etc., and they 
all depend for a living upon the precious copper buried far 
beneath the surface. 

Copper is valuable in many ways. It is one of the 
metals which form bronze, and also brass ; but of late 
years the wide introduction of electricity has created a 
new and even greater demand for this metal. Since cop- 
per is a substance which allows electricity to pass through 
it more easily than other common metals, it is the best 
material for trolley wires, the wire of long distance tele- 
phones, electric bells in houses, etc. In every city in the 
land much copper is used. 



260 THE UNITED STATES 

As in the case of iron ore, the metal is shipped to 
points along the lakes, and elsewhere, by water and by 
rail, much of it going to the metal manufactories in the 
New England cities (p. 147). Name some goods that 
must be shipped into this section instead of away from it. 

Lead, Zinc, etc. — Lead and zinc, two other metals found in 
the Central States, occur together in pockets and little veins, 
in layers of limestone. The ores are mined in many places, as 
at Joplin, Missouri, and then sent to the proper kind of fur- 
naces where the pure metals are extracted. 

A large part of our supply of lead and zinc is obtained from 
Missouri, Kansas, Wisconsin, and Iowa, the first-named state 
producing more zinc than any other in the Union. For what 
purposes are lead and zinc used ? Of what use should you 
think this lead was to the early pioneers ? 

Besides these metals, gold is mined in considerable quanti- 
ties in the Black Hills in the extreme western part of Dakota. 
..Much salt is also obtained in the Central States, especially 
in Michigan and Kansas. 

Clays. — The deep soil left in the prairie states by the 
glacier is often a clay which is useful in the manufacture of 
bricks ; and, as in other sections of the country (p. 180), there 
are many brickyards, especially near the large cities. From 
this same kind of clay, other articles, such as flower-pots and 
drain-pipes, are manufactured. During recent years, when 
drainage of farm land has become so common, the manufacture 
of tile for that purpose has developed into a great industry, 
many a small town having a tile factory. These objects are 
made in much the same manner as brick (p. 180), except that 
the clay is pressed into other forms. 

There are a number of places where fine pottery also is made. 
For instance, a very high grade, known as Bookwood ware, 
is manufactured in Cincinnati. The best of clay is needed 
for this, and some of it must be brought from a distance. 
The first step in making a vase is to wet a lump of clay so 



CENTRAL STATES 261 

that it may easily be moulded, and then shape it upon a rap- 
idly revolving wheel, known as the potter's wheel (Fig. 139), 
which has been in use for centuries. There it is whirled rapidly 
round while a man moulds it with his hands, in a very few 
minutes changing a shapeless lump into a delicately formed 
vase. It must then be baked. After the baking, flowers or 
other ornaments may be painted upon it. The surface is finally 
covered with a substance which, when baked, produces a glaze. 
One of the beauties of the Rookwood ware is the peculiar color 
of the glaze, which is a dark brown or yellowish brown. 

Principal Cities and Shipping Routes 

It is evident that the raw products of the farms, 
ranches, forests, and mines in the Central States must 
lead to much commerce ; and that, since coal is included 
among the raw products, manufacturing must also be 
developed. This means, of course, that there must be 
many large cities ; and since the Central States have no 
ocean coast, we naturally find them along the Great Lakes 
and the three great rivers, — the Mississippi, Ohio, and 
Missouri, — where it is possible to 'ship goods by water. 
Let us first consider those along the Great Lakes. 

THE LAKE CITIES 

Duluth and Superior. — At the western end of Lake 
Superior there is a fine, large harbor, one side being in 
Minnesota the other in Wisconsin. Upon this harbor are 
two cities, Duluth and Superior, which together have 
a population of little less than one hundred thousand. 
The chief products of this vicinity are iron, lumber, and 
wheat, which are shipped eastward in immense quantities 
from these two ports. Owing to the neighborhood of the 



262 THE UNITED STATES 

Dakota wheat fields, there are enormous elevators (Fig. 
201) at Duluth for storing grain, and flour-mills for grind- 
ing it up. The iron ore docks, sawmills, and lumber 
wharves are also busy places. 

Goods are shipped to this point as well as away from it ; 
for while the people in this section have some materials to 
spare, they also need many others, as farming implements, 
clothing, various kinds of food, ■ furniture, and coal. These 
goods are brought cheaply, because the vessels carrying ore, 
wheat, and lumber eastward must have something to bring 



Fig. 199. 
Lake vessels, the one in front being called a whaleback. 

back. As already suggested (p. 181), it is the needs and prod- 
ucts of the inhabitants of this distant region which help to 
make Buffalo, Montreal, and New York so important, and 
to keep the mills and factories of New England so busy. Ex- 
plain how this is true. 

At the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Huron, there are 
rapids which interfere with navigation ; and to avoid these a 
ship canal, called the Sault Ste. Marie, or " Soo," canal, has 
been dug. On its banks is a city of the same name. 

Chicago. — While Lake Superior extends far into the 
Central States in one direction, Lake Michigan reaches a 



CENTRAL STATES 263 

long way in another; and near its southern extremity, in 
Illinois, the great city of Chicago is located. At this 
point the small Chicago River empties into the lake (Fig. 
200), forming a small harbor, and in early times a fort was 
located there. The harbor itself was formed thousands 
of years ago while the great glacier was melting away. 
At that time, the ice sheet lay across Lake Michigan, 
forming a great dam which prevented the waters from 
flowing into Lake Huron and the St. Lawrence River. 
This compelled the water to find an outlet southward, 
past the present site of Chicago, and into the Illinois River 
and the Mississippi. It was the wash of this water which 
dug out the small harbor. 

As the West developed, this site proved to be a most 
advantageous one ; for whenever a railway was built from 
the East to the Northwest, from any place north of Wash- 
ington, it was necessary for it to pass around the southern 
end of Lake Michigan. Of course, as the city grew in 
size, other railways were built to it because it was large ; 
and now they approach it from the East, West, North, and 
South (Fig. 200). 

Chicago is the nearest lake port to the most productive 
grain region in the world, and it is therefore an important 
shipping point for grain. It is also within easy reach of 
the coal fields, while lumber and iron ore are readily 
brought to it by boat. These facts have caused Chicago 
to grow with wonderful rapidity, so that it has long 
since outgrown its small natural harbor, which has been 
enlarged by extensive breakwaters (Fig. 200). In the 
year 1840, there were but 4,470 inhabitants ; in 1870, 
300,000, and now fully 2,000,000. To-day Chicago is the 
second city in size in the New World. 




Fig. 200. 
Map showing the location of Chicago and Milwaukee. 



CENTRAL STATES 



265 



Elevators. — Elevators are more numerous in Chicago than 
in Duluth. They are built for the purposes of .transferring 
grain, as from cars to boats, for storing it, mixing different 
qualities together, cleaning it from rust and seeds, and airing 
it so that it will not spoil. 

For these objects the buildings are located at the very water's 
edge, if possible, and close to a railway. They are called 
elevators because the grain they receive is elevated to the top 
of the lofty building, 
to be dropped from 
there into deep bins. 
The main part of the 
structure is occupied 
with rows of bins, usu- 
ally from five to eleven 
feet square and per- 
haps a hundred feet 
deep. There may be 
as many as five hun- 
dred bins in a single 
large elevator. Above 
these is located some 
of the machinery for 
drawing up the grain 
and distributing it ; 
and since a small space answers for the latter purpose, the 
topmost part of the building is often narrower than the rest, 
as in Figure 201. 

Since many boat loads of grain are stored in a single ele- 
vator, it must be an exceedingly strong building. One may 
cost as much as a million dollars, yet there are more than 
thirty in Chicago, and a large number in Duluth, Minneapolis, 
Cleveland, Buffalo, New York, and other cities. 

Stock Yards of Chicago. — Chicago is not only a great 
grain market, but also the most important meat market 
in the world. All the grazing states of the West ship 




Fig. 201. 
A huge grain elevator near the waterside. 



266 



THE UNITED STATES 



stock to this point, and in the city itself nearly a square 
mile is taken up by the Union Stock Yards, consisting of 
large sheds, pens with high fences, and troughs for food 
and water (Fig. 202). Train loads of cattle, hogs, and 
sheep are unloaded there every day. The work employs 
about thirty thousand men, which indicates how extensive 
it is. 

The products of the packing houses are several. By 
far the most important is meat ; and so well developed is 

the industry that 
most of the cities 
of the East are fur- 
nished with fresh 
meat from the West- 
ern cities. It maybe 
several weeks after 
the meat is prepared 
for food before it 
reaches the table ; 
yet all this time it 
is kept fresh by the 
use of ice. Special 
refrigerator cars 
are constructed for the purpose of carrying it. 

Besides what is sold fresh, a great deal is canned. The 
fat of the hog is made into lard, and not a little beef fat 
is converted into imitation butter, such as oleomargarine. 
From the bones, also, valuable products are obtained. 
Many of the bones are burned and used in the manufac- 
ture of sugar (p. 215); and the horns and hoofs are of 
use in making gelatine and glue. ^ 

The hides are made into shoes, gloves, harness and 




Fig. 202. 
The Chicago stock yards. 



CENTRAL STATES 267 

other leather goods. From the western packing houses 
the great shoe factories of Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton, 
in Massachusetts, as well as those in other parts of the 
country, are supplied with a large part of their leather. 
The hides, however, must first be sent to tanneries, one 
of the principal places being Milwaukee, which is sup- 
plied with tannic acid from the bark of the hemlock 
tree which grows in the forests of Wisconsin. Nothing is 
wasted in the packing business ; even the bristles of the 
hog are saved to make brushes ; and the hair removed 
from the hides of cattle is valuable in making plaster. 

Manufacturing in Chicago. — Being near the forest 
regions, Chicago has become a lumber market ; and iron 
ore is also easily brought by boat. Therefore, the oppor- 
tunities for manufacturing are excellent ; for, although 
there is no natural water power in that vicinity, vast coal 
fields are not far away. 

The Illinois Steel Company alone employs ten thousand 
men, making iron and steel goods of many kinds. An enor- 
mous amount of furniture is manufactured for all parts of 
the West, and farming implements as well. Each year the 
McCormick Harvesting Machine Company sends out about 
three hundred thousand machines. The Pullman Car Works 
manufacture more than ten thousand freight cars, besides 
several hundred Pullman and passenger cars. The manufac- 
ture of clothing, as in New York (p. 187), is also an immense 
industry. 

Other Facts about Chicago. — The sewage from the city has 
heretofore been emptied into Lake Michigan ; but as the drink- 
ing water must be taken from the lake, it became necessary to 
dispose of the sewage in some other way. For that purpose 
an immense drainage canal has recently been completed (Fig. 
200), connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois River, and 



268 THE UNITED STATES 

thus setting the current toward the Mississippi and the Gulf 
of Mexico. This drainage canal, which is wide and deep 
enough for vessels, will undoubtedly develop into a ship canal. 
In that case, large boats may reach Chicago from the Gulf of 
Mexico, as they now do from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What 
effect would this have upon the city ? 

The chief educational institution is the University of Chicago, 
which, although established so recently as 1890, has almost as 
many students as the older universities of the East. Mention 
some of the larger eastern universities. 

Other Cities along the Lakes. — Other great cities along 
the lakes are engaged in many of the same industries as 
Chicago, and need not be so fully described. Milwau- 
kee (Fig. 200), the largest in Wisconsin, deals extensively 
in grain, lumber, and leather, packs much pork, and manu- 
factures a great quantity of flour and machinery. Its 
immense breweries have already been mentioned (p. 217). 

Detroit (Fig. 209), the largest city in Michigan, is also 
on the Great Lakes water route. The name is a French 
word for strait. Why suitable here ? All vessels going 
east or west must pass this city ; and railway trains from 
eastern Canada to Chicago and the West are ferried across 
the strait at this narrow point. Detroit is consequently 
a shipping and manufacturing centre, dealing in grain, 
wool, pork, and ores from the West, and making iron and 
steel goods, such as cars, stoves, etc. 

Not far away, at Ann Arbor, is the University of Michigan, 
one of the largest educational institutions in the United States. 
It is supported by the state ; in fact, state universities are estab- 
lished in most of the Central, Southern, and Western States. 

On the lake shore in Ohio the chief cities are Toledo 
and Cleveland (Fig. 209). The former has extensive 



VENTRAL STATES 



269 



flour-mills and iron manufactories ; and the latter, which 
is much the larger, and about the size of Cincinnati, De- 
troit, and Buffalo, has an 
important trade in grain, 
lumber, and ore. Being 
near the coal and petro- 
leum fields, Cleveland is 
extensively engaged in 
manufacturing machinery 
and furniture, in refining 
petroleum, and in ship- 
building for the lake com- 
merce. It is one of the busiest and most rapidly growing 
of the lake cities. 




Fig. 203. 
A lake steamer at Chicago. 



THE RIVER CITIES 

Cities along the Mississippi. — The largest city on the 
rivers, corresponding to Chicago on the lakes, is St. Louis 
in Missouri (Fig. 204). It has a very favorable position 
in the centre of the productive Mississippi Valley. This, 
together Avith the fact that it is situated on the Mississippi 
River near the mouth of its two largest tributaries, secures 
for it a large amount of trade both by water and by rail. 
The location of railway bridges across the broad Missis- 
sippi at this point has also had an immense influence on 
the growth of the city. 

Like Chicago, St. Louis is an important market for grain 
and live stock ; but being so far south, it trades also in 
Southern products, especially cotton and tobacco. This city 
is also a noted mule and horse market, and a great manu- 
facturing centre. It manufactures immense quantities of 
tobacco, beer, flour, boots, shoes, clothing, and hardware. 




Fig. 204. 

Map showing the location of St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, and 

St. Paul. 



CENTRAL STATES 



271 




Formerly Chicago and St. Louis were almost the only 
noted markets for grain and live stock in the West ; but 
in later years several other cities have become prominent 
in that section. Two of these are the " twin cities," Min- 
neapolis and 
St. Paul (Fig. 
204). The lat- 
ter, the capital 
of Minnesota, is 
a trade centre. 
F r o m it the 
products of the 
West are sent 
eastward and 
southward, while farming implements, furniture, clothing, 
and other articles are distributed among the smaller towns 
of the vast farming region round about. 

Minneapolis, only ten miles distant, is located at the 
Falls of St. Anthony, which furnish splendid water power. 
It is also in the midst of the wheat region ; and this, to- 
gether with its water power, has caused Minneapolis to 
become the leading flour-producing centre in America. 
In the city are many grain elevators and flour-mills 
(Fig. 206). 



Fig. 205. 
Railways approaching St. Paul. 



One of these flour-mills, belonging to the Pillsbury-Wash- 
burn Company, is the largest in the world. Steam shovels 
scoop the grain from the trains very rapidly, emptying a car of 
750 bushels in eighteen to nineteen minutes. All straw, use- 
less seeds, sticks, etc., must first be separated from the grain, 
and then it passes through many different machines before the 
pure flour is produced. During this process it must be raised 
to the top of the building twelve different times, being carried 



272 



THE UNITED STATES 



up by rapidly moving belts having many small buckets, or- 
pockets, attached. 

Just inside the husk of a wheat grain is the kernel, the most 
valuable part of the wheat. First, the husk is removed by 
machinery, and this is sold for bran and shorts, while the 

centre, called the 



heart, or germ, is 
made into break- 
fast food. The 
other portion is 
ground into flour, 
poured into sacks 
and barrels by 
machinery, and 
then sent sliding 
down an inclined 
plane into the 
cars which stand 
near by. This 




Fig. 206. 
The Pillsbury-Washburn flour-mills at Minneapolis. 



one mill has ground as much as 61,000 barrels of flour in six 
days. The daily capacity of five mills owned by this company 
is 25,000 barrels. It would require 400 cars, or 20 trains of 
20 cars each, to bring the grain needed each day, and to carry 
away the flour and other products. 




Fig. 207. 

Logs in the rivernear Minneapolis. One of the bridges across the Mississippi 
River at this point is seen in the background. 



CENTRAL STATES 



273 



What have you already learned about the influence of the 
St. Anthony's Palls on the lumber industry of Minneapolis ? 

Other smaller cities on and near the Mississippi, between 
this point and St. Louis, are Winona in Minnesota ; La 
Crosse in Wisconsin ; Dubuque, Davenport, and Des Moines 
in Iowa; and Quincy and Peoria in Illinois. Each is impor- 
tant either for lumber, grain, or farming implements, or for all 
three combined. 

Cities along the Missouri. — The leading cities on the 
Missouri River are Omaha in Nebraska and Kansas 




Fig. 208. 
Hogs in western Kansas being fattened for the market. 

City (Fig. 204) in western Missouri. Each is surrounded 
by a fertile farming country which produces much grain. 
Each is also a market for cattle, sheep, and horses raised 
near by and in the semi-arid region farther west. Being 
so near the ranching country, both of these cities have an 
advantage over St. Louis and Chicago, and their meat- 
packing industry is gaining rapidly each year. 




Fig. 209. 
Map showing the location of Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. 



CENTS AL STATES 



275 



Southwest of Omaha is Lincoln", the capital of Nebraska ; 
and across the river in Iowa is Council Bluffs, an important 
centre for farming implements. Several cities northwest of 
this point are chiefly important as trade centres. Find some 
of them on the map. On the river above Kansas City is St. 
Joseph in Missouri, and below it is Jefferson City, the capi- 
tal of that state. Farther west, in Kansas, are Wichita and 
Topeka, the capital. Since we know the products of this sec- 
tion, it is clear why most of the larger cities are centres for 
stock, grain, and flour. 



Cities in the Ohio Valley. — In the Middle Atlantic 
States, three cities of the upper Ohio — Pittsburg, Alle- 
gheny and Wheeling 
— were found to owe 
their importance 
largely to coal and 
iron, and to the fact 
that river boats could 
reach them. 

Farther down the 
river is Cincinnati 
(Fig. 210), the larg- 
est city in the Ohio 
valley, and a great 
manufacturing cen- 
ter. Besides pottery (p. 260), this city manufactures large 
quantities of iron, machinery, and clothing. Across the 
river in Kentucky are Covington and Newport (Fig. 
209), both almost a part of Cincinnati, as Jersey City is 
almost a part of New York. Farther north and east, in 
Ohio, are Dayton and Springfield, both noted for the 
manufacture of farm machinery. Dayton, like Pullman 




Fig. 210. 
River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati. 



276 THE UNITED STATES 

in Chicago, makes a large number of cars. Columbus, 
the capital, is an important trade centre, and manufactures 
carriages, wagons, and other articles. The reasons why 
these cities are engaged in the manufacture of carriages 
and farm machinery are, first, the presence of the neces- 
sary raw materials, such as iron ore, coal, and hardwood ; 
and, secondly, the many farms upon which these manu- 
factured articles are needed. 

Farther down the river is Louisville, the largest city 
in Kentucky. There are rapids in the Ohio at this point, 
and a canal leads around them. Besides being a centre 
for tobacco, like Richmond and St. Louis, Louisville 
manufactures iron goods, farming implements, flour, and 
leather goods. It is also a railway centre for lines reach- 
ing into the Southern States. 

Evansville, the largest river port in Indiana, is prin- 
cipally engaged in the manufacture of flour, machinery, and 
leather goods. Indianapolis, the capital and metropolis 
of Indiana, is in the midst of a splendid farming district. 
It is a railway and trade centre like Columbus, and handles 
a large amount of grain, lumber, and furniture. What 
other large cities can you name that are not located upon 
important water routes ? 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiogra- 
phy: — the plains; the mountains; the prairies; the soil. (2) What 
about the climate of the section ? (3) Tell about the settlement of 
the Mississippi Valley : — first pioneers ; use of the rivers ; steamboats ; 
canals and railways; rapid settlement in later years; population. 

(4) Describe the farm in Ohio: — its size; the buildings; the prod- 
ucts ; life on the farm. Would you care to live there ? Why ? 

(5) What fruits are raised, and where ? (6) Where is tobacco raised, 



CENTRAL STATES 277 

and what cities are engaged in its manufacture ? (7) What kinds of 
stock are raised in Kentucky? What is the reason for their fine 
grade? (8) Describe the Mammoth Cave. (9) Tell about corn: — 
the planting ; the care of the field ; uses of corn ; cities which handle 
the corn. (10) Where is wheat raised? (11) Describe the Red River 
valley of the North. (12) Tell about wheat raising on the Dalyrymple 
farm. (13) What cities have been influenced by this wheat region ? 
(14) What other grains are raised? For what are they used? In 
what cities ? (15) Describe cattle ranching : — where carried on ; rea- 
son ; the cattle ranch ; wandering of the cattle ; object and nature of 
the spring round-up ; of the beef round-up ; what is done with the cat- 
tle ; the life of the cowboys. (16) Where are the forests ? (17) What 
kinds of trees are found? (18) How is the lumbering carried on? 
(19) What cities are engaged in lumbering? In the manufacture 
of articles from wood? (20) What is the origin of the building- 
stones? What kinds are found? Where? (21) Where are oil and 
gas obtained? Of what use are they? (22) Where is coal found? 
To what uses put ? (23) Tell about the iron mining : — its develop- 
ment ; nature of the ore ; where sent ; reason ; manner of loading 
the vessels; cities sent from and shipped to; states producing it. 

(24) Study about copper : — where found; how found; mining; ob- 
taining the metal from the ore ; towns near the mines ; uses of copper. 

(25) What other minerals are obtained? Where? (26) What clay 
products are manufactured? (27) Where is Rookwood ware made? 
How ? (28) Where are the principal cities to be looked for ? Why ? 
(29) What cities at the western end of Lake Superior? For what are 
they important ? (30) Give the reasons for the location of Chicago 
and its wonderful growth. (31) Describe an elevator. (32) Describe 
meat packing in Chicago. (33) To what uses are the various prod- 
ucts put? (34) W r hat manufacturing is carried on in Chicago ? Why? 
(35) State some other facts about Chicago. (36) Briefly enumerate 
the important facts about Chicago. (37) What other Great Lake cities 
are there? For what is each important ? (38) Name the cities along 
the Mississippi River, and tell for what each is important. (39) De- 
scribe flour milling. (40) Name the cities along the Missouri. For 
what is each important ? (41) Do the same for the Ohio valley. 

Review by States : Ohio (0.). — (1) Name the four largest cities, 
(table, p. 448). Where is each located? Why there? (2) What 
other cities of Ohio are mentioned? For what is each important? 
(3) Why is there much manufacturing in this state? (4) What 
other industries are mentioned in the text ? (5) Examine the maps 



278 THE UNITED STATES 

(Figs. 324 to 334) in order to see what crops are raised in Ohio. (6) In 
what ways are the cities of Ohio dependent upon New Orleans and 
New York ? How are the latter cities dependent upon those in 
Ohio ? (7) Of what service to Cleveland and Toledo is the Erie 
Canal? (8) Draw a sketch map of Ohio like that of Maine (p. 155). 
Do the same for each of the other states as you study about it. 

Indiana (Ind.). — (9) Examine the maps (Figs. 324 to 334) to see 
what crops are produced in Indiana. (10) Which is the largest 
city? For what noted? (11) What other cities were mentioned? 
(12) What are the industries of Indiana? (13) Examine the relief 
map to see if the relief seems favorable to farming. What other Cen- 
tral States resemble this in relief ? (14) Of what importance was the 
fact that so large a part of this section was treeless when discovered? 
Kentucky (Ky.). — (15) Why should this state be better adapted to 
tobacco raising than Ohio? (16) Of what importance is the lime- 
stone of Kentucky? (17) Where are most of the cities located? 
Why there? (18) What products are mentioned from Kentucky? 
(19) Which is the largest city ? For what important ? (20) What 
other cities are mentioned ? 

Illinois (III.). — (21) What industries are mentioned from this state? 

(22) Examin-3 the maps (Figs. 324 to 334) to see what crops ai'e raised. 

(23) What reasons can you state why there is much manufacturing 
in Illinois? AVhat kinds are carried on ? (24) Of what value is the 
lake to manufacturing? (25) State the reasons why Chicago has 
developed so greatly. (26) What other cities are mentioned in this 
state? For what is each important? (27) In the table (p. 448) find 
the population of the thi-ee largest cities of each of the four states 
so far i-eviewed, and compare them. (28) Which of these four states 
is the largest ? Which smallest? (Table, p. 445.) Compare each with 
Massachusetts and New York in size. In population (table, p. 445). 

Michigan (Mich.). — (29) What lakes does this state border? Of 
what advantage is this ? (30) What disadvantage can you see in the 
fact that water separates the lower from the upper peninsula of Michi- 
gan ? (31) Ice stops lake traffic in winter. What effect must this 
have ? (32) Into what waters does this state drain ? Contrast this with 
the other states. (33) Where are most of the large cities? Why 
there? (34) For what is each important? (35) What reasons can 
you give for the location of Detroit? (36) What important products 
come from Michigan ? 

Wisconsin (Wis.). — (37) Which is the largest city in this state? 
For what important? (38) What other cities are mentioned in the 



CENTRAL STATES 279 

text ? What is done in each ? (39) Compare Wisconsin with Michi- 
gan in relief ; in industries ; in mineral products ; in crops (see Figs. 
324 to 334) ; in the size of cities. (40) What effect must the lakes 
have upon the climate ? Would this influence be greater or less than 
in Michigan? Why? (41) If there were coal beds in northern Wis- 
consin, what effect might it have upon Chicago, Cleveland, and the 
coal mining of Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota (Minn.). — (42) On Figure 64 find the summer tem- 
perature of northern Minnesota. On Figure 63 find the winter 
temperature. How much difference do you find? Compare that with 
the difference at Boston, New York, and San Francisco. (43) Where 
does the Mississippi River rise ? (44) What ocean receives the 
waters that fall upon Minnesota ? Through what rivers ? (45) What 
industries are carried on in this state? (46) What crops are raised? 

(47) Name the three largest cities, and tell why each is important. 

(48) How does the largest compare with Boston? With Cincinnati? 
Iowa (la.). — (49) Examine the maps (Figs. 324 to 334) to see 

what crops are raised in this state. (50) What other important in- 
dustries are carried on? (51) Name the largest cities. For what 
noted? (52) Much corn is raised here ; what must be done with it ? 

Missouri (Mo.). — (53) How do the summer and winter tem- 
peratures compare with those of Minnesota (see Figs. 63 and 64). 
(54) What influence must this have upon the crops ? Examine Fig- 
ures 324 to 334 to see how much influence this difference has. (55) Why 
are so few towns found in the southwestern part? (56) Name and 
locate the two largest cities. For what is each important ? (57) What 
other cities are mentioned? (58) Find the population of St. Louis 
(table, p. 447) ; compare it with New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, 
and Boston. (59) Give what reasons you can for its great size. 

Kansas (Kan.). — (60) Why are the cities confined to the eastern 
part? (61) What are the industries of the west? Why? (62) What 
crops are raised in Kansas (Figs. 324 to 334). (63) Name the prin- 
cipal cities. For what is each noted? 

Nebraska (Neb.). — (64) How do the industries of Nebraska com- 
pare with those of Kansas ? Why ? (65) How are these states alike 
in regard to location of cities? (66) What cities in Nebraska are 
mentioned? (67) For what is Omaha noted? Why may we expect 
it to increase in importance in this respect ? 

North and South Dakota (N.D. and S.D.). — (68) These two states 
were formerly the territory of Dakota. What reason can you see for 
making two states out of the one territory? (69) How do the indus- 



280 THE UNITED STATES 

tries of the two states compare with those of Nebraska and Kansas ? 
(70) Look at the corn and wheat maps (Figs. 324 and 326) to see 
where most wheat and corn are produced. Is North Dakota more or 
less important than Kansas as a corn-producing state? Answer the 
same for wheat. Tell why this is so. (71) Of what advantage would 
it be to Fargo if a deep river extended from that city to Duluth ? 
(72) What do the Black Hills contribute to the wealth of South 
Dakota? 

General. — (73) Which state is the largest in this group ? (Table, 
p. 445.) Which smallest? Compare each of these with Mass., R.I., 
N.Y., N.C., and Tex. (74) Which of the Central States has the most 
inhabitants? (Table, p. 445.) Which the least? Compare each of 
these with Mass., R.I., N.Y., N.C., and Tex. (75) Find the ten 
largest cities (table, p. 448). How does their total population compare 
with that of the ten largest in each of the other groups of states? 

Suggestions. — (1) Write a brief description of the Western prai- 
ries. (2) Find how much earlier in the fall frosts come in Minneapo- 
lis than in Memphis. (3) Mention several advantages of farm life 
over city life. (4) How do farms that you have seen differ from the 
Illinois farm described in the text ? (5) Find other uses of corn be- 
sides those mentioned. (6) How does the wind often help ranch cattle 
to obtain food in winter ? (7) What are some of the adventures that 
cowboys experience? (8) Why are coal and brick especially valuable 
in a prairie country ? (9) Examine a brickyard, and write a descrip- 
tion of brick making. (10) See how long a list you can make of arti- 
cles manufactured partly or wholly out of copper. (11) Do the same 
in regard to lead. (12) How are the advantages of the location of 
Chicago somewhat similar to those of Atlanta? (13) Where is the 
flour that you eat manufactured? (14) Make a drawing of the great 
water route from Duluth to New York City, and put in the leading 
cities. What states border on this route? (15) Make a drawing of 
the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers, and include the leading- 
cities. What states do these rivers border or pass through ? (16) State 
clearly the advantages of these water ways. (17) Make a sketch map 
of the Central States, including principal lakes, rivers, and cities. 

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XII. THE WESTERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Compare this group with each of the other 
sections in relief (Fig. 98) ; in climate (Figs. 46, 63, and 64) ; size 
(table, p. 445); population (table, p. 445). (2) Which is the largest 
state? The smallest? How does each compare in size with Massachu- 
setts, Pennsylvania, and Texas? (3) AVhat becomes of the water of 
the Humboldt River ? (4) Name the five largest rivers ; where does 
each rise, through what states does it pass, and where does it empty? 

(5) Name the principal mountain ranges; the plateaus (Fig. 96). 

(6) Which is the highest mountain peak? (p. 457.) (7) Where are 
the largest cities ? Why there ? (8) Find the Yosemite and Yellow- 
stone parks. Why is it a good idea for the government to set aside 
interesting places as national parks? (9) Name the states having a 
seacoast. (10) Name those draining mainly or entirely into the 
Pacific. Into the Atlantic. Into the Great Basin. 



Early Settlements. — While the pioneers were settling 
the prairies of the Central States, almost nothing was 
known about the Far West. The Spanish had taken pos- 
session of the 
Southern por- 
tion, and many 
of their names 
are still re- 
tained, as New 
Mexico, Los 
Angeles, and 

San Francisco. 

Fig. 212. 

° A Spanish mission in southern California — a relic of 

Was discovered the days when that section belonged to Spain. 

281 




282 THE UXITED STATES 

in the stream gravels of California, and hundreds of thou- 
sands of persons left farms, factories, and homes in a mad 
rush for the gold fields. Some sailed all the way around 
South America ; others crossed the Isthmus of Panama ; 
but many travelled overland, running the risk of attack 
from Indians and of death from thirst. There were then 
no railways west of the Mississippi, and the journey was 
long and tedious. 

For ages the precious metal had lain scattered through the 
rocks of the Sierra iSTevada Mountains. Then, as the moun- 
tains slowly crumbled, it had been washed into the streams. 
Most minerals decay when exposed to the air ; but gold always 
remains bright. Being heavier than most minerals, the gold 
in the streams dragged along at the bottom, lodging here and 
there in the stream beds, oftentimes in little pockets or behind 
boulders where the current was checked. 

It was this gold that the early gold hunters, or prospectors, 
were seeking, and they obtained it in a very simple manner. 
Placing some of the stream gravel in a pan of water (Fig. 342), 
they rocked it back and forth in such a way as to cause the 
heavier particles of gold to separate from the gravel, while 
the lighter minerals were thrown away. The prospectors were 
sometimes rewarded by finding large lumps of gold, called 
nuggets, worth hundreds of dollars. 

The discovery of gold quickly drew so many persons to 
California that the territory was able to enter the Union 
as a state in 1850 ; and, as the search for the precious 
metal was carried farther and farther, the West soon be- 
came explored and settled. Railways were built across 
the mountains (Fig. 213), and many industries, such as 
farming, lumbering, and ranching, have followed mining. 
Indeed, in many sections these industries are now much 
more important than even gold and silver mining. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



283 




Fig. 213. 

A railway winding about as it crosses the Rocky Mountains. 

Physiography. — The Western States are made up almost 
entirely of plateaus and mountains. Most of the surface 
is more than a mile above sea-level, while some mountain 
peaks are two and three miles in height. 

The extreme eastern portion is a continuation of the 
Great Plains (p. 248), which reach to the very base of 
the Rocky Mountains. These mountains (Fig. 211) extend 
entirely across the country into Mexico on the south and 
Canada on the north. They are made up of a large num- 
ber of ranges and ridges, which attain their greatest 
height in Colorado. 

A long distance farther west, and almost parallel with 
the Rockies, is another system of mountains, called the 
Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and the Cascade 
Ranges in Oregon and Washington. Still farther west, 
and close to the coast, is a third series, known as the Coast 
Ranges, which in places rise directly out of the ocean. 




Fig. 214. 
Compare the relief in this section -with that of Figures 101, 122, 154, and 179. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



285 



Just west of the Rocky Mountains is a plateau, dotted 
with numerous mountain peaks and small ridges. It is 
higher at the two ends than in the middle, and may be 
divided into three parts (Fig. 96) : (1) the great Columbia 
plateau of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington on the north ; 
(2) the Colorado plateau of Arizona and Utah on the south; 
and (3) the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada between 
the two. The numerous short north and south mountain 
ranges in the Great Basin are called the Basin Ranges. 

Between the Sierra Nevada Cascade system and the Coast 
Ranges there is an area of lowland (Fig. 214). In California 
and Oregon this 
forms a fertile val- 
ley ; in Washing- 
ton it is occupied 
by Puget Sound. 

Throughout 
most of this West- 
ern country evi- 
dences of volcanic 
action abound (p. 
8). Some of the 
loftiest peaks are 
extinct volcanoes, 
as Mt. Panier, 
within sight of Tacoma, Washington; Mt. Hood (Fig. 215), 
not far from Portland, Oregon; and Mt. Shasta, in northern 
California. 

The influence of lava on the West is marked. For hundreds 
of thousands of square miles it forms the rock of the country, 
and through its decay has produced a soil which is very fertile. 
It covers the plateaus, especially in the north, and is one of 
the chief causes for the peculiar scenery of the West. 

Even more important still is the effect of the lava upon 
the formation of minerals. Veins of gold and silver usually 




Fig. 215. 
Mt. Hood, Oregon. 



286 THE UNITED STATES 

occupy cracks in the rock which have been caused by the break- 
ing of the strata while the mountains were forming. Through 
these cracks water passes, heated so hot by contact with the 
volcanic rocks that it is able to carry mineral matter in solu- 
tion. As the water cools, on nearing the surface, it cannot hold 
all of its mineral burden in solution, and therefore deposits a 
part of the metal on the walls of these cracks. In this way 
many valuable veins of metal have been slowly gathered, and 
it is for these that thousands of miners are now searching. 

Climate. — Unlike the East, where the climate is very 
uniform over large sections, the West is a region of con- 
trasts, with a great variety of climate from place to place. 
The most general fact about the climate of this vast 
Western region is its aridity. It is almost everywhere so 
dry that no agriculture is possible without irrigation. 
Only among the high plateaus and mountains, and in the 
western parts of Washington, Oregon, and northern Cali- 
fornia, is there rainfall enough for forests or for farming. 
Thus, almost one-fifth of the entire continent is a partial 
or complete desert. 

Along the northwestern coast the damp prevailing west- 
erlies bring so much vapor that the rainfall is heavy (p. 51). 
Indeed, near the coast of Washington there is a rainfall 
greater than in any other part of the United States (Fig. 
46), the heaviest rain coming in winter. But being robbed 
of its vapor in crossing the mountains, the air descends 
on the eastern side so dry that agriculture is possible only 
in a few sections, as in the high mountain valleys and in 
the wheat district of central and eastern Washington. 

A part of Nevada, Utah, and Arizona is a true desert, 
and portions of each of the other states approach it. North 
of Great Salt Lake, for example, not a tree nor even a 



THE WESTERN STATES 



287 



shrub is to be seen for miles and miles. The entire sur- 
face is covered by a glistening whitish substance called 
alkali. In other regions dreary wastes extend hundreds 
of miles, interrupted only by 
cacti and a few other arid land 
plants, by rocky ledges, and 
by occasional mountain peaks. 

The lack of water is shown 
on the map by the scarcity of 
streams in and near Nevada. 
That section is a real basin, 
having a rim higher than the 
centre, and is called the Great 
Basin (Fig. 96). Its few 
streams either flow into shal- 
low salt lakes, which are grow- 
ing more and more salt as the 
years pass, or they dry up and 
disappear in the sand. 

That rain falls on the cool 
mountains and plateaus of the 
West is proved by the numer- 
ous large rivers which have 
their sources there. Name and 
locate those flowing from the 
Rocky Mountains into the Mis- 
sissippi. Trace the Rio Grande and the rivers that empty 
into the Pacific Ocean. Although long, these rivers are 
not navigable, partly because of the steep slopes, and 
partly because of the lack of water. Indeed, during the 
dry summer season, many, like the Rio Grande, almost 
disappear in the middle part of their course. 




Fig. 216. 

Some of the giant trees that grow 
in the rainy Northwest. 



288 THE UNITED STATES 

The importance of even the higher plateaus in condensing 
the vapor is well illustrated by the highlands of central Ari- 
zona. A person travelling eastward from Los Angeles, on 
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Kailway, upon reaching the 
Colorado River in the evening, finds himself in the midst of a 
desert about 500 feet above sea-level. If it is summer, the 
thermometer may register from 110° to 120° in the shade, for 
this is the hottest region in the United States, hotter than 
many parts of the torrid zone. After leaving the river, the 
train ascends the Colorado plateau, 7000 feet high, and the next 
morning the traveller is in the midst of a forest, while the 
almost unbearable heat of the previous day is replaced by a 
deliciously cool air. As if by magic the scene is changed, 
simply because, on the elevated plateau, the air is cooler and 
the vapor can therefore be condensed into rain. 

Mineral Products. — As we have already seen, mining 
was the first industry to attract large numbers of pioneers 
to the Far West. Every one of the Western States con- 
tains mineral deposits of some kind, as gold, silver, copper, 
lead, mercury, and coal. This region is now the most 
important mining district in the world. 

Much of the land is still owned by the government and 
all ore that is discovered upon it belongs to the finder. 
Any citizen of the United States may become the owner 
of a valuable mine, if he can find one on government land. 
Consequently, hundreds of prospectors are digging tun- 
nels into the earth wherever they believe they may obtain 
ore. In most cases they are doomed to disappointment, 
but they keep on, moving from place to place. Sometimes, 
however, valuable ore is found, and then the poor pro- 
spectors become suddenly rich. 

Much gold has been discovered in the gravels of stream 
beds where water no longer flows. In many places these 



THE WESTERN STATES 



289 



dry beds are near the surface, so that mining is easy ; in 
others, they have been covered up by a thick blanket of 
hard lava, beneath which the miners are obliged to tunnel 
in order to follow them. 

Very early the miners became dissatisfied with the slow 
"panning" of the gold, as washing the gravel in pans 
was called (p. 282). They then adopted the far more 




Fig. 217. 
Washing gold from gravel beds in California by means of hydraulic mining. 

speedy plan of hydraulic mining. By this method a power- 
ful stream of water is turned against a gravel bank from 
the nozzle of a hose, washing the gravel rapidly away 
(Fig. 217). The water, gravel, and gold are led into 
steeply sloping troughs, or sluices, which have numerous 
little bars of wood, called riffles, across their bottom. The 
water, with its load of gravel, rushes over the riffles to the 
end of the sluices, where the coarser gravel is dropped ; 



290 



THE UNITED STATES 



but the gold, being so heavy, settles to the bottom of the 

sluices and is caught behind the riffles. From there it is 

later collected. 

Much gold has been obtained from the gravels of other 

western states besides California. For example, even the 

gravel out of which some of the streets of Helena, Mon- 
tana, are built has 
been washed for 
gold. 

Another method 
of mining gold, and 
the one by which 
most of that metal 
is now obtained, is 
to dig into the solid 
rock. The shafts and 
tunnels follow the 
veins from which 
the gold in the grav- 
els originally came. 
In the veins, the 
metal is found mixed 
with other minerals 
which are of little 
or no value ; but 
the gold occurs in 

such small grains that one may spend days in a mine 

looking for it, without seeing any. 

One of the most remarkable mining districts in the world 
was that of the Comstock Lode at Virginia City, Nevada. 
The vein was irregular in richness, some parts, called " bonan- 
zas." containing so much gold and silver that vast quantities 




Fig. 218. 

Ouray, a thriving mining town in Colorado, 
nestled in a mountain valley and enclosed 
by lofty mountain peaks. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



291 



were taken out, while elsewhere it was much more barren. 
So much metal was obtained from this single vein that Nevada 
at one time produced more silver than all the other states put 
together, and more gold than any other state in the Union. 
So many people moved there then that Nevada territory be- 
came a state in 1864; and Virginia City, though in the midst 
of the desert, grew to be a thriving city. 

As the mine went deeper, hot water with a temperature of 
170° entered it. This caused the temperature in the mine to be 
almost unbearable. Ice-cold air was forced in, and machinery 
and mules were made to do most of the work ; but even then 
men fainted at their posts, and the mine was finally abandoned. 
In consequence of this, people drifted away from Virginia City, 
and Nevada became almost deserted. What is its present popu- 
lation ? (See p. 446.) Compare it with New York City in popula- 
tion (see p. 447). With the large city nearest to your home. 




Fig. 219. 

A western stage coach bringing a crowd of miners into a newly discovered 
mining camp, as miners were carried into Cripple Creek a few years ago. 

At the present time Colorado produces more gold and 
silver than any other state (Figs. 342 and 343), and much 
copper, lead, iron, and coal, besides. Among the moun- 
tains, one sees mines almost everywhere ; but one of the 
most noted mining districts is near Leadville, a city at 
an elevation of over 10,000 feet above sea-level. Another 



292 THE UNITED STATES 

well-known mining town in Colorado is Cripple Creek. 
A few years ago no town existed there, and the ore, which 
has now become so valuable, was not recognized as ore by 
the prospectors. Finally, when some one discovered the 
gold, at once, as in previous cases where that metal has 
been discovered, thousands of people rushed in from all 
directions and a city sprang up almost in a day. 

After the ore is taken from the mines it must be crushed, 
the worthless parts must be washed out, and the remainder 
sent to the smelters (Fig. 220), where the metal is obtained by 




Fig. 220. 
A smelter at Great Falls, Montana. 

a complicated process. The machinery for crushing and smelt- 
ing is so expensive that ores from many mines are sent to one 
place, and must sometimes be carried a long distance. The 
mines near Leadville send their ore to that city ; but many 
mines in Colorado ship ore to the smelters at Denver and 
Pueblo. 

The western half of Montana is another great mining 
section. Helena has already been mentioned (p. 290); 
but no portion of the state is now so important for min- 
ing as Butte. There the principal metal is copper, 
although some gold and silver are mixed with the ore. 
More copper is produced at Butte than in any other min- 



THE WESTERN STATES 293 

ing district in the world. The mines are very extensive, 
reaching several thousand feet into the earth and having 
miles of tunnels, through which one might wander for 
days without finding his way out. 

Much of the ore is crushed and reduced in smelters 
within the city limits. In the process, fumes of sulphur 
pour forth from the tall chimneys, and settle to the 
ground, killing almost all vegetation, and causing the city 
and its immediate surroundings to present a barren, deso- 
late appearance. 

As in Colorado and Montana, the principal industry in Ari- 
zona is mining, much copper, silver, lead, and gold being pro- 
duced. One of the largest cities in the territory is Tucson, 
which, together with the others, is mainly engaged in business 
connected with mining. There is also much mining in each of 
the other Western States, especially in Idaho, Utah, and New 
Mexico. 

Iron is found in several of the states, but it is not mined to 
any extent excepting west of Pueblo, in Colorado. Coal, usu- 
ally of poor quality, also occurs in many sections ; but a very 
good grade of coal is produced in Colorado, and in the state of 
Washington. 

Lumbering. — Because of the extensive development of 
mining there is much lumbering. The Butte mines alone 
consume millions of feet per year. In the mines heavy 
timbers are placed upright and close together on each side 
of a tunnel, with crosspieces overhead, to prevent the rock 
from caving in. Because of the great pressure upon them, 
timbers more than a foot in diameter are often broken. 

While a great portion of the country is arid, the moun- 
tains and some of the higher plateaus are forested. Thus 
the mines, which are usually among the high mountains, 



294 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 221. 
A lumbering scene in Washington. Here oxen draw the sections of logs. 

are generally supplied without difficulty, for the logs are 
easily brought down to them from above. 

In the damp, equable climate near the northwestern 
coast, are forests of giant redwood, fir, cedar, and spruce 
trees which grow to a greater size than any other trees in 
the world (Figs. 47, 216, and 221). While the logs in 
Maine and Michigan are rarely more than two or three 
feet in diameter, many in Washington and Oregon are 
from six to ten feet through, and some in California are 
very much larger. 

A visit to a lumbering camp near Tacoma will show that, 
owing to the size of the trees, and to the climate, the work is 
carried on very differently from lumbering in Maine (p. 127). 



THE WESTEEN STATES 



295 



The men are able to work both winter 
and summer. They select a tree which 
perhaps towers upward for two hundred 
feet, — that is higher than most church 
steeples, — and contains as much as fif- 
teen thousand feet of lumber, or enough, 
Avhen sawed into boards, to build a 
small house. Two men saw and chop at 
this tree for nearly an hour (Fig. 222), 
until the giant begins to quiver. When 
finally it falls, a wonderful sight may 
be seen. The tree bends slowly over, 
quickens its movement, then falls to the 
ground with a mighty roar, breaking 
good-sized trees, against which it falls, 
as if they were twigs. 

After the branches are removed, the 
tree is sawed into logs of different 




Fig. 222. 
Chopping down a tree in 
Washington. The men 
stand on platforms so 
as to reach ahove the 
decayed wood near 
the hase. 




Fig. 223. 
One of the great logs ready to be removed from the forest in Washington, 
small engine, used to draw the logs to the railway, is also shown. 



296 



THE UNITED STATES 



lengths, as twenty-four, thirty-two, forty-eight feet, and these 
are dragged to a railway which leads up into the forest. Several 
of these sections are then fastened together, one behind the 
other, and dragged between the rails to the foot of the moun- 
tain several miles away. There they are piled upon flat cars 
and taken to the mills, a single section sometimes occupying 
an entire car. Many go to Tacoma and Seattle, where there 
are enormous sawmills. Since there is so much lumber, many 
of the streets of Tacoma, and other places in this region, are 
paved with thick planks instead of stone or asphalt. 




Fig. 224. 

Harvesting wheat in the great wheat fields of the Palouse region of Washing- 
ton. By this machine, drawn hy many mules, the wheat is hoth cut and 
tied into bundles at the same time. A farm must be very large to make 
such an expensive machine pay. 

Agriculture. — Farming is carried on extensively in the 
well-watered section of the Northwest (Fig. 224). This 
is a wheat-producing country like the Red River valley. 
Indeed, some of the farms are even larger than the Daly- 
rymple farm (p. 246). Barley is another common grain 
and much hay is also raised. During harvest season the 
air is so dry that both hay and grain may be left out for 
weeks with little danger of being spoiled by rain. 

Great quantities of fruit are also raised in this region. 
In the north apples, pears, and grapes are produced ; but 
in the south, as for instance near Stockton, and Sacka- 



THE WESTERN STATES 



297 



mento, the capital of California, are groves of oranges, 
lemons, olives, and figs, as well as other trees which grow 
only in warm climates. 

But the only way in which farming is possible in most 
other parts of the West is by means of irrigation (Fig. 
226). The influence of irrigation is well illustrated in 
the region near Denver, which is in the midst of an arid 
plain. This is crossed, however, by the South Fork of 
the Platte River, from which a ditch as large as a canal is 
led out upon the plain. The river itself has a rapid fall ; 
but just enough slope has been given to the ditch to secure 
a flow of the water. By this means the land between the 
ditch and the river is at a lower level than the ditch, and 
may therefore be reached by the water. 

Smaller branches are led off from the main ditch, and 
each of these is .divided and subdivided to supply farms 
along its course. When a field needs water, the ditch is 
tapped and the 
field flooded, or 
else the water 
is led into little 
furrows a few 
feet apart. The 
method fol- 
lowed depends 
upon the kind 
of crop that is 
under cultivation. As there is danger that the supply of 
water may not last through the summer, reservoirs (Fig. 
225) are built to store the water from the spring freshets ; 
and when needed, this is allowed to flow into the ditch. 

Of course such an arrangement is expensive, and each 




Fig. 225. 
A reservoir for irrigation near San Diego, California. 



298 THE UNITED STATES 

farmer must pay for his water at a certain rate, as each 
house in a city pays for its water or gas. That one can 
afford to do so is well shown in this case. On the upper 
side of the ditch, which cannot be reached by the water, 
the land is fit only for grazing ; but that which can be 
irrigated is covered with cultivated fields of grain, vege- 
tables, and alfalfa. The latter is a very nutritious plant 
which, like clover and hay, is fed to stock. 

Without irrigation, crops could not be grown in this 
vicinity, but would need to be brought several hundred 









in MmvMUjSj^Ma^BBBB 












wpp 1 








<• '" 






... 










^^SHj 







Fig. 226. 
An irrigation ditch on the plains near Billings, Montana. 

miles, from Kansas, Nebraska, and other states. It is 
evident, therefore, that irrigation must have had a great 
influence on the settlement of the West. Without it 
Denver and Pueblo would not be the cities that they 
are ; and, because of the difficulty of obtaining food, scores 
of mining towns would not be in existence. 

Wherever the waters of the rivers are led out over the 
fields, people form settlements and often small cities. 
That is the case at Greeley, Colorado, Cheyenne and 
Laramie, the principal cities in Wyoming, and numerous 
other places. 



THE WESTERN STATES 299 

One of the best farming districts in the arid lands is in 
Utah. Most of that state was originally almost a desert, but 
large areas have been entirely changed by the Mormons, a 
peculiar sect organized by Joseph Smith in New York in 1830. 

Under the leadership of Brigham Young these people mi- 
grated into the then unknown West and settled a few miles 
from Great Salt Lake. There they commenced to build Salt 
Lake City, which is now one of the most beautiful cities in 
the country. They also began to raise crops by irrigation, to 
plant fruit trees, and to convert portions of the desert waste 
into beautiful gardens. 

Since the Mormons discouraged mining as much as possible, 
until recently mines were little developed in Utah. For a 
while they also succeeded in keeping out the " gentiles," as 
they called those who did not accept their teachings. Mean- 
while their own numbers increased rapidly, and they spread 
even into Wyoming, Idaho, and other places where it was pos- 
sible to raise crops by irrigation. 

With the discovery of rich ores, however, other people have 
pushed into Utah, building the railway centre of Ogdex north 
of the capital, and now making up fully one-third of the popu- 
lation of Salt Lake City itself. 

Southern California is a third section noted for its ex- 
tensive irrigation. The mountains of the neighborhood 
condense the vapor, and the water is led. into long irrigat- 
ing ditches and stored in immense reservoirs (Fig. 225). 
The region is far south and its shores are bathed by warm 
ocean waters, so that the climate is warm and delightful. 
Although the land is by nature almost a desert, the addi- 
tion of water to the fertile soil has changed the country 
about Los Angeles to one of the garden spots of the 
world. This region produces oranges, lemons, peaches, 
pears, grapes, figs, olives, walnuts, almonds, and many 
other kinds of fruits and nuts. 



300 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fig. 227. 
An irrigation ditch that supplies water to some of the orange groves of south- 
ern California. 

Among the fruits the most common is the orange, especially 
the seedless navel orange. In the neighborhood of Los Angeles 
every home has its orange trees, and in many cases is entirely 

surrounded by groves of 
them. The winter season 
is the harvest time for 
oranges, which begin to 
be picked from the trees 
about the middle of No- 
vember and continue to 
be gathered until Febru- 
ary or later. They are 
cut from the trees, sorted 
according to size (Fig. 
230), then packed iu 
boxes and shipped away. 
The groves of all kinds 
are planted in straight 
FlG - 2 - 8 - rows, and are kept so clean 

An orange grove near Los Angeles. No- Iqj frequent ploughing 
tice the snow-capped mountains in the ^ scarcel a weed ig to 
background from which water for irn- J 

gation is obtained. be seen. In this respect 




THE WESTERN STATES 



301 




they contrast very strikingly with the orchards, overgrown 
with grass and weeds, that are seen upon farms of the East. 

Besides fruit in the fresh state, immense quantities of fruit, 
such as peaches, prunes, apricots, grapes (Fig. 231), and figs, 
are dried, usually by 
exposure to the sun. 
In the Eastern States 
fruit would decay if 
left out of doors ; biit 
in the sunny climate 
of the arid lands it 
dries quickly. Great 
quantities of fruit are 
also canned, as near 
Baltimore and else- 
where in the East. 

Fig. 229. 

mi i <• Picking oranges near Los Angeles. 

1 housands of per- 
sons from the East were originally attracted to southern 
California by the mild climate ; but seeing the opportunity 

for fruit raising, 
they started or- 
ange groves. As 
a result of this, 
Los . Angeles 
has rapidly 
grown to a city 
of more than a 
hundred thou- 
Fig. 230. sand inhabitants 

Sorting and packing oranges. (Fig. 247), while 

near by are numerous smaller cities. Land that a few years 
ago was almost a desert, and worth at best only a few dol- 
lars an acre, now supports flourishing groves of fruit. 




302 



THE UNITED STATES 




Fi; 



31. 



Raisins drying between the rows of grape 
vines in a California vineyard. 



So important is irri- 
gation that it is being 
introduced wherever 
possible ; and every 
year new irrigation sys- 
tems are being built, 
some of them at great 
expense. One of the 
future problems of the 
West is how to store 
the water of the melt- 
ing snows until needed 
by the summer crops. 

Ranching. — There is 
so little rainfall in the 



arid West that only a very small fraction of the land can 
be irrigated. This leaves most of the country suited only 




Fig. 232. 
A view in the ranch country of the Great Plains. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



303 



to grazing ; and wherever there is water enough for the 
animals to drink, cattle, horse, and sheep ranches are 
found (Fig. 232). In some parts, especially where the 
grass is scanty, herds of goats are raised. 

The manner in which a cattle ranch in Dakota is con- 
ducted was described on page 248, and much the same plan 
is followed for cattle and horses in the Western States. 
Sheep ranching is conducted somewhat differently, as can 
be seen from the ranches about Billings, Montana. A 




Fig. 233. 
A herd of sheep in winter, feeding in a field of alfalfa near Billings, Montana. 

good-sized ranch has from twenty-five thousand to forty 
thousand head of sheep, which, like cattle, may be fed 
partly upon the government land, or the ' range," and 
partly on land fenced in and owned by the ranchman. 
During the coldest winter weather the sheep are in many 
cases driven into protected corrals and fed on alfalfa (Fig. 
233), because the snow on the range sometimes becomes so 
deep that they cannot obtain food. However, the fierce 
winds of the open plains help them by drifting the snow 
and thus leaving open patches where they can find grass. 



304 



THE UNITED STATES 



When the sheep are feeding on the range one man with a 
dog (Fig. 234) can herd twenty-five hundred ; and, with 
a horse in addition, he sometimes takes care of five thou- 
sand. Selecting some spot near water for a camp, the herder 
drives his sheep out each morning and back at night, going 
each day a distance of a mile or two from camp. When 
the grass is eaten in one place, the camp is moved; then, 
from another point as a centre, they wander out as before. 



'.:. . ■ ■-:■■■■ 




Is* 1 


, 




■'.'.' 



Fig. 234. 
A sheep herder, and his flock of sheep. 

The life of the herder is extremely lonesome, both day and 
night being spent with the sheep. Once a week a man comes 
to bring him food; and for weeks, and even months at a time, 
that is the only company he has, aside from his sheep, his dog, 
and possibly his horse. 

After the winter is over, the first profit to the ranchman 
comes from the sale of the pelts of sheep which have died dur- 
ing the cold weather. He expects a loss of about five per cent 
a year from this cause ; and wolves also take some. 



THE WESTERN STATES 305 

The next harvest comes from the wool. Men who make it 
their business to shear sheep travel in squads of about twenty- 
five. They erect sheds and pens near some sheep centre, such 
as Billings, and shear all the sheep that are brought to them. 
Sometimes sheep are sheared at the ranch ; but many consider 
it more desirable to drive them near to a market, thus saving 
the expense of drawing the wool a long distance to the railway 
station (Fig. 235). In this way the sheep also secure food on 
the range while on the journey to and from the market. 

In the Southwestern States sheep are often sheared twice a 
year ; but further north it is done only once, and then as near 



Fig. 235. 

A load of wool, drawn by twelve oxen, entering Billings after a long journey 
from a distant ranch. 

the month of June as possible. Can you suggest a reason for 
choosing that time? After the wool is cut, it is pressed into 
bales and shipped to various markets in the East. Where 
should you think it might be sent, and for what purpose used ? 
From July on, many sheep are sold for mutton. Those that 
are from three to five years old, and that have already borne a 
quantity of wool, are usually selected for this purpose. The 
hides are useful for leather, the bones for fertilizing the soil, 
and the tallow for candles. 

Territories. — Arizona and New Mexico are still terri- 
tories, although Arizona has twice as many inhabitants as 



306 



THE UNITED STATES 



DD 




Fig. 236. 



the state of Nevada, and New 
Mexico nearly four times as 
many. 

This is the region in which 
some of the most highly devel- 
oped Indians were discovered by 
the Spaniards (p. 94), and here 
some of their descendants still 
occupy reservations. However, 
much of the country is now occu- 
pied by Americans and Mexicans, 
who have formed large settle- 
ments, such as Albuquerque, 
the largest city in New Mexico. 



A Navajo Indian girl and one 
of the blankets woven by 
these Indians. 



The Pueblo Indians are especially 
interesting, for some of them still live 
after the manner of their ancestors. 
Their homes are built of sun-dried clay, or adobe, and in some 
cases are entered from the roof by means of a ladder (Figs. 80 
and 237). They 
were intended as 
strongholds for 
the storing of 
grain and for pro- 
tection against 
wandering tribes 
which might at- 
tack them at any 
time. Other In- 
dian houses, the 
cliff-dwellings FlG - 237 - 

(Fi^S. 238 and On the rocky flat-topped hill, well above the surround- 
9^*^ p p hm'lt ' n £ C0UIltl 'y ar, d difficult to reach, is one of the 

/' _ Indian pueblos. It is tbe square mass, looking some- 

0n the sides of what like rocks, in the middle of the hill. 




THE WESTERN STATES 



307 




Fig. 238. 

Cliff-dwellings, built in the caves beneath the overhang- 
ing cliffs. 



cliffs "beneath 

overhanging 

ledges ; and still 

others, cave- 

dwellings (Fig. 

240), were in 

caves dug out 

of the rocks. 
Among the 

early Spanish 

settlements is 

the quaint city of Santa Fe, the capital of ISTew Mexico. 

There, as elsewhere in the territory, the houses are mostly low, 

one-story, adobe 
buildings (Fig. 
241). Spanish is 
the language 
most commonly 
heard, and on all 
hands one sees 
the primitive 
customs of a cen- 
tury ago. For 
instance, wheat, 
instead of being 
threshed out by 
machines, is 
often spread up- 
on the ground in 
an enclosure and 
tramped by goats 
until the grain is 
separated from 
the hull. The 
grain is then 
Fig. 239. tossed into the 

Houses of the cliff-dwellers. air in order that 




308 



THE UNITED STATES 





the wind may 
carry away the 
chaff. However, 
in many parts 
of New Mexico 
and Arizona, 
mining an d 



Fig. 240. 

Cave-dwellings in New 

Mexico. 

other industries 
are well developed, 
and there are many 
American resi- 
dents. 

Scenery 

In many places 
among the moun- 
tains there are sights comparing favorably with those of 
the Alps, which attract so many Americans abroad. Fine 
views, strangely formed cliffs, deep canyons, and imposing 
waterfalls are present without number. But among all 
the interesting places there are three that easily surpass 
the others in magnificence and grandeur. These are the 
Yellowstone National Park, the Colorado Canyon, and 
the Yosemite Valley. 

The Yellowstone Park. — This region, chiefly in Wyo- 
ming, is a tract of land, larger than Connecticut, which 
the government has set aside as a national park. It is 
often called the "Wonderland of America." Among the 
many objects of interest are boiling springs, boiling mud 
springs of different colors, deep canyons, and waterfalls. 
Some of the springs are on the level of the ground, so that 



Fig. 241. 

A view in a New Mexico town, showing the low 
adobe houses in which the Mexicans live. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



309 



one must be on the constant outlook lest he step into 
one ; others are surrounded by a rim several feet high, 

A stage road leads from the Northern Pacific Railway to 
the Mammoth Hot Springs on the northern side of the Park. 
There, from openings in the hillside, heated water flows down 
over beautifully colored terraces which have been built by a 
deposit of mineral matter brought by the water. Farther on 
are boiling springs, and here and there is one, called a geyser, 
from which hot water and steam occasionally burst forth with 
great violence, sometimes to a height of 100 or 200 feet (Fig. 
242). " Old Faithful," one of the most regular of these, plays 
at intervals of 65 minutes, to a height of 100 to 130 feet. Others 
discharge at much longer periods, as two to three hours, or 
several days; and in some cases the roar of escaping steam 
lasts for hours after the water has all been expelled. The out- 
bursts" are really ex- 
plosions of steam, 
the heat being sup- 
plied from deep in 
the earth. 

Beyond the gey- 
ser basins the Yel- 
lowstone Lake is 
reached, a beautiful 
sheet of water, nes- 
tled in the moun- 
tains at a height of 
nearly 8000 feet 
above the sea. Its 
waters flow north- 
ward, forming .the 
Yellowstone River, 
a tributary of the 
Missouri. To many persons, the falls and canyon of this river 
are the greatest wonders of the Park. Soon after leaving the 
lake, the stream narrows and quickens, and the water leaps 109 




Fig. 242. 

An eruption of one of the geysers of the Yellow- 
stone Park. 



310 THE UNITED STATES 

feet directly downward. A short distance farther on it tumbles 
308 feet farther, or almost twice the height of Niagara. It 
then runs between banks which extend 1000 feet above it. 

The canyon is somewhat winding, with numerous bold cliffs 
jutting far out into the abyss ; and from these, wonderful and 
inspiring views may be obtained. Far below, one sees the sil- 
very stream, too distant to be heard as it dashes along. Across 
the chasm, a half mile away, dark green pines fringe the bank ; 
and between the water and these woods are gorgeously colored 
rock strata., having all the colors of the rainbow. 

Colorado Canyon. — One portion of the Colorado Can- 
yon, in Arizona, may be reached on the Atchison, Topeka 
and Santa Fe Railway. The wonderful Yellowstone Can- 
yon, just described, is a pygmy compared with. this. 

As one first looks out over the canyon he sees nothing 
but towers, pinnacles, many-colored layers of rock, and 
apparently bottomless depths. When he finally takes a 
position from which the thread-like stream below can be 
spied in the abyss, it seems almost impossible that so little 
water could have wrought such mighty havoc. 

The difficult path which leads to the bottom is seven 
miles long, and the trip down and back is a full day's 
journey ; but without making it, one fails to appreciate 
fully the marvellous carving, sculpturing, and coloring. 
At the bottom the scene is entirely changed ; and, as one 
looks upward to see himself shut in by walls which seem 
to extend to the very heavens, his own littleness and the 
immensity of the work of Nature are wonderfully im- 
pressed upon him. 

For three hundred miles the river flows at the bottom of 
this deeply cut canyon, and hence serves as a very complete 
barrier to travellers. A person living on one side, where he 
could look across to the other side, ten miles away, would need 



THE WESTERN STATES 



311 




Fig. 243. 
A view in the Colorado Canyon. 

to travel hundreds of miles to reach that side ; for there are no 
railways or roads leading across. 

Yosemite Valley. — This wonderful valley, on the western 
slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in California, presents 
very different views from those already described. Some of 
the most magnificent are formed by the Yosemite River, which 
pours over a precipice into the valley below. In one mighty 
leap the water descends 1500 feet, forming the Yosemite Falls 
which are famed the world over. Below this are some cas- 
cades, then another fall of 400 feet. 

Near the fall are seen the giant trees of the world, the larg- 
est of which is 31 feet in diameter. 



312 the united states 

The Cities 

Cities in the Interior. — Large inland cities in the West- 
ern States are very few in number, the greatest being 
Denver, the capital of Colorado. This city is located on 
the site of a small mining camp ; but its growth is chiefly 
due to two facts : (1) the numerous mining towns among 
the mountains, and (2) the near presence of water, which 
has made irrigation on a large scale possible (p. 297). 
The first fact calls for an important trade centre some- 
where in that region, and the second makes it possible to 
secure food. 

Denver has now become a railway and manufacturing 
centre, where ore is smelted, and machinery, flour, and 
cloth manufactured. It is also of importance as a health 
resort, for its altitude of over five thousand feet, and its 
dry climate, render it especially adapted to persons suf- 
fering from lung trouble. Colorado Springs, south of 
Denver and near Pike's Peak, is one of the leading health 
resorts in the country. 

Pueblo, a trade and manufacturing centre, is situated 
where the Santa Fe line meets the Denver and Rio Grande 
Railway. In this city much ore is smelted, and iron 
goods are manufactured. It is its nearness to coal and 
iron ore which makes the latter industry possible. 

A number of interior cities, such as Salt Lake City, Ogden, 
and Butte, have already been mentioned (pp. 292 and 299). 
Name some others. None of the other inland towns in these 
states are very large, and whatever importance they have is 
due chiefly to mining, farming by irrigation, and grazing. 

Cities on the Pacific Slope. — The largest city in all these 
states is San Francisco (Fig. 244), located on a remark- 




Fig. 244. 
Map to show the location of San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 



314 



THE UNITED STATES 



ably fine harbor which was formed by the sinking of the 
coast, as the harbor of New York City was formed. As 
in that case, too, there are other important cities near at 
hand — the largest being Oakland. Close to San Fran- 
cisco are the two most important educational institutions 
in the Far West, — one, the University of California, at 
Berkeley (Fig. 244), the other, Lelancl Stanford Junior 
University, a short distance south of San Francisco. 

Farther south is 
San Jose, and 
to the northeast 
is Sacramento, 
the capital. 

The enormous 
crops of wheat, 
fruit, and wool 
in northern Cali- 
fornia suggest 
some of the occu- 
pations in these 
cities. What are 
they ? Owing 
partly to an in- 
sufficient supply 
of coal, manufacturing is not so extensively developed as 
might be expected. One sees the effect of this lack of 
coal on the railways, for wood is a common fuel on the 
engines in Oregon and northern California, while in south- 
ern California steam is often generated by the use of 
petroleum, obtained from the oil wells of Los Angeles 
and vicinity. It is not surprising, then, that most of the 
wool raised in the West is shipped to the East to be 




Fig. 245. 

The capitol building at Sacramento, one of the most 
beautiful state capitols in the country. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



315 



manufactured into clothing, blankets, etc., even though 
some of these articles must be sent to California to be sold. 
Nevertheless, San Francisco has founderies and machine 
shops, flour and woollen mills, sugar refineries, canning 
factories, breweries, and distilleries. The principal prod- 
ucts sent away from the state are gold and silver, wine, 
fruit, wool, and grain, some going East by rail and some 
by water. This is the greatest shipping point on the 




Fig. 246. 
A scene iu " Chinatown " in San Francisco. 



Pacific coast ; and, as our trade with the Philippines, 
Hawaiian Islands, and other Pacific countries increases, 
we may expect San Francisco to grow rapidly. 

An interesting portion of this city is the section called 
"Chinatown" (Fig. 246). Chinese are very common in 
some parts of the West ; and since, for a long time, San 
Francisco was their chief landing place, many thousands 
have collected there, who live huddled together in hovels, 
almost like rats. 



316 



THE UNITED STATES 



^JfWtll- 








'•'« liw^s^s 




Kb.' 


j^prw ^ -^*jB > 


» 



Fig. 247. 
A street in Los Angeles. 



Owing to the fact that mountains rise almost from the 
sea, there are few harbors on the Avest coast ; and those that 

are found are 
at places where, 
in the course 
of mountain 
growth, the land 
has been low- 
ered. The next 
important har- 
bor south of San 
Francisco is the 
port of Los An- 
geles, twenty 
miles from Los Axgeles itself. A still better one, how- 
ever, is still farther south at Sax Diego. Estimate the 
distance of these points from San Francisco (Fig. 2-14). 

The first good harbor north of San Francisco is that of 
Portland (Fig. 244), which, like New Orleans, is situ- 
ated about a hundred miles up the river near the head of 
deep water navigation. Since harbors are lacking, most 
of the other important towns of Oregon are inland, and 
Portland has grown to be the chief shipping point by 
water, and therefore the largest city. From this point 
wheat, wool, and lumber, the leading products of Oregon, 
are shipped in great quantities. Portland has extensive 
manufactories of woollen goods, flour, and furniture ; and 
Salem, the capital, also has large woollen and flour mills. 

Farther down the Columbia are several towns, the largest 
being Astorta, where, as elsewhere along the river, the salmon 
industry is developed. The salmon, like the shad of the East 
(p. 163), although spending its life in the ocean, passes up the 



THE WESTERN STATES 



317 



river to spaivn, or lay its eggs, in fresh water. In their pas- 
sage the fish are caught in great numbers (Figs. 248 and 249), 
and some are shipped 
away in ice, even 
across the continent 
to Eastern cities. 
Others are sent to 
the numerous can- 
ning factories along 
the lower Columbia, 
where they are 
cooked, and packed 
in cans (see also pp. 
358-360). 




Fig. 248. 

Catching salmon in dip nets as they leap up over 
the falls on their way to the waters where they 
spawn. 



Washington, unlike Oregon, has many good harbors. 
On two of these Seattle and Tacoma (Fig. 244) are 
situated ; but Spokane, the third city in size, is located 

near some 
falls of the 
Spokane Riv- 
er in the east- 
ern part of 
the state. 
Coal, lumber, 
grain, and 
hops are the 
principal ex- 
ports. There 
is also exten- 
sive manufac- 
ture of flour 




Fig. 249. 

A wheel, with a net on it, which revolves in the current 
and lifts the salmon from the water as they swim 
past. 



at Spokane, and of lumber and furniture along the 
shores of Puget Sound, especially at Seattle and Tacoma. 



318 THE UNITED STATES 

These goods are shipped away in large amounts, some 
going to the Eastern cities, some to China, Japan, the 
Philippines, Alaska, and other countries. 

On Figure 355 notice what great lines of railway cross 
the continent to the Pacific coast, and in what cities they 
terminate. What about the number of railways on the 
Pacific coast compared with those on the Atlantic ? 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Tell how California be- 
came settled. (2) How did gold get into the streams? (3) How 
did the prospectors obtain it? (4) Describe the physiography: — 
the mountains and plateaus ; the volcanoes ; their effects. (5) Tell 
about the climate: — the aridity; the rainy Northwest; the deserts; 
the effect of plateaus and mountains. (6) What minerals are found 
in the West ? (7) Tell about the prospectors. (8) Describe hydraulic 
mining. (9) What kind of gold mining is now most common? 
(10) Give the history of the Comstock Lode. (11) What effect did 
it have upon Nevada? (12) What state now produces most gold and 
silver? (13) Name and locate the principal mining towns in Colo- 
rado. (14) What must be done with the ore ? Where is it done ? 

(15) Name and locate the principal mining town in Montana. 

(16) In Arizona. (17) Where is copper found in these states? 
(18) Where is coal chiefly found? (19) Where are the forests? 
Why? (20) Describe lumbering near Tacoma. (21) What are the 
farm products of the sections that are well supplied with rain? 
(22) State the plan for irrigating the land near Denver. (23) Tell 
how irrigation has influenced the settlement of the West. (24) Name 
some cities that have irrigation systems. (25) Tell about the 
Mormons. (26) Describe the fruit region of southern California: — 
the appearance of the country ; the climate ; the products ; what is 
done with them; the cities; the importance of water. (27) Why is 
ranching carried on in the West? What animals are raised? 
(28) Tell about sheep ranching : — number of sheep ; care given 
them ; shearing ; uses of the products. (29) Tell about the Indians 
of New Mexico and Arizona. (30) About the primitive customs of 
the Mexicans. (31) Describe the Yellowstone Park: — location; 
size ; springs and geysers ; the canyon. (32) Describe the Colorado 



THE WESTERN STATES 319 

canyon. (33) The Yosemite Park. (34) Name the principal inland 
cities, telling for what each is important. (35) What cities are on 
or near San Francisco Bay? For what important? (36) Tell about 
San Francisco. (37) Name the harbors south of San Francisco. 
(38) Describe the location and industries of Portland. (39) What 
is done at Salem? (40) Tell about the salmon industry. (41) Name 
the cities of Washington. For what is each important? 

Review by States : Montana (Mont.). — (1) What industries are 
carried on in the eastern part? Why? (2) What industries in the 
western part? (3) Name the cities mentioned in Montana, and tell 
for what each is important. (4) What two large rivers drain this sec- 
tion? (5) Through what states do they flow before reaching the Gulf? 
(6) Draw an outline map of the state; and, as each of the other 
states is studied, do the same for it. 

Wyoming ( Wy.) . — (7) What industries are carried on in this state? 
(8) What cities are mentioned? In what connection? (9) Find the 
Yellowstone Park, and tell for what it is noted. (10) On the maps 
showing principal grain-producing regions (Figs. 324, 326, and 328), 
Wyoming is a state where very little is produced. W r hy so little'there ? 

Colorado (Col. or Colo.). — (11) Examine Figures 324 to 349 to 
see what is done in Colorado. (12) Give the reason why there is 
more water for irrigation in this state than in some of the others. 
(13) Trace the divide between the Pacific and Atlantic drainage, as 
it crosses Colorado. Trace it northward to Canada and southward to 
Mexico. (14) Name the cities in Colorado mentioned in the text, 
and tell for what each is important. (15) Find the population of 
Denver (table, p. 449). Compare it with the largest city in each of 
the other Western States, and also with New Orleans, Buffalo, and 
St. Louis. 

Neio Mexico (N.M.).— (16) What about the inhabitants? (17) What 
is said about the industries? (18) Find how large the largest city is 
(table, p. 448). (19) Compare it with the largest city in Massachu- 
setts. In Nevada. 

Arizona (Ariz.). — (20) Tell about the river which crosses the terri- 
tory. (21) What city and industries are mentioned ? (22) Examine 
the maps, Figures 46, 63, and 64, and tell about the temperature and 
rainfall of Arizona. (23) How does the largest city compare in size 
with the largest in New Mexico ? In Colorado ? 

Nevada (Nev.). — (24) For what was Nevada once famous? 
(25) Find its present population (table, p. 446). Why are there 
so few people? 



320 THE UNITED STATES 

Utah. — (26) Tell why the Great Salt Lake is salt (see First Bock, 
p. 55). (27) What are the industries of this state? (28) What 
cities are mentioned? Tell about each. (29) Examine the maps, 
Figures 326 to 347, to see what products come from Utah. 

Idaho (Ida.). — (30) What metals are obtained? (See Figs. 341 
and 343.) (31) What great river drains Idaho ? (32) What moun- 
tain range forms the eastern boundary ? 

Washington (Wash.). — (33) Compare the coast line with that of 
Oregon ; of Maine. (34) Tell about the rainfall of this state. Com- 
pare it with Montana. Why this difference? (35) What effect has 
the rainfall upon the industries ? What are the principal industries? 
(36) What cities are mentioned in the text ? Tell about each. 

Oregon (Ore.). — (37) What advantage do you see in the location 
of the largest city ? (38) Compare it in size with Denver, New York, 
Boston, and New Orleans. (39) Examine the maps (Figs. 326 to 
347) to see what is produced there. (40) What industries are men- 
tioned in the text ? (41) W r hat cities are mentioned, and in what 
connection ? 

California (Cal.). — (42) Examine the rainfall map (Fig. 46). Ex- 
plain the difference between northern and southern California (pp. 
49 and 51). (43) What rivers drain most of this state ? (44) De- 
Scribe the relief. (45) Name the cities mentioned ; for what is each 
important? (46) What industries in the state? (47) What advan- 
tage do you see in the location of San Francisco ? (48) Compare its 
population with that of Boston, New Orleans, Denver, and Chicago. 
(49) AVhat caused the early growth of California ? What effect has 
that had on the other Western States ? (50) To whom did California 
belong before we obtained it? 

General. — (51) Which state has the largest population? (See 
table, p. 445.) The smallest? (52) Compare each with Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, New York, and South Carolina. (53) Name the 
ten largest cities (see table, p. 448). Add their populations to- 
gether, and compare the result with the ten largest in each of the 
other groups. (54) Which group of states has the most large cities? 
Which the least? What reasons can you give? 

Suggestions. — (1) Read about the expedition of Lewis and 
Clark from St. Louis to the Pacific coast in 1803-1806. (2) What 
is the origin of the expression " to pan out " ? (3) W T hy do the 
heavier rains on the northern Pacific coast come in winter? (4) Men- 
tion several of the advantages and disadvantages of having no rain 



THE WESTERN STATES 321 

for several months at a time, as in southern California. (5) Make a 
collection of minerals for the school. (6) Hydraulic mining has been 
largely prohibited in many parts of the West. Why? (7) Should 
the ditch that is to irrigate a certain field skirt its upper or lower 
edge ? Why ? (8) W^hich is the more easily irrigated, nearly level 
land, or land that is rough and hilly. Why? (9) Is southern Cali- 
fornia so liable to cold snaps as Florida ? Why ? (10) Make a list 
of articles made of wool. (11) Why have Arizona and New Mexico 
not become states? (12) Find out about the wild animals in Yellow- 
stone National Park. (13) Write a story describing a visit to south- 
ern California. (14) Make a drawing of the Western States. 



GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES 

(1) Name the principal crops of the United States, and tell in which 
section each is raised (consult the figures 324 to 336). (2) Do the 
same for mineral products. (3) For other raw products. (4) For 
manufactured articles. (5) Name the five largest cities in their order. 
For what is each important ? (6) State some ways in which the rain- 
fall influences the occupations of the people. (7) The temperature. 
(8) State clearly the influence of the sinking of the coast. (9) Of 
the glacial period. (10) Of the winds. (11) Of the ocean currents. 
(12) Of the coal period. (13) Of the absence of forests on the prai- 
ries. (14) Of the rich mineral deposits in the West. (15) In what 
ways have the Great Lakes been of value? (16) Name some of the 
cities that have been benefited by them. (17) In what ways have 
the Mississippi River and its two largest tributaries been of value? 
(18) State the natural advantages that have aided the growth of 
Boston, New York, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, 
Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco. (19) Can you name 
some other cities that have also been influenced by their surround- 
ings? (20) Which is the largest state ? (Table, p. 445.) The second 
in size ? The smallest? The next to the smallest ? (21) Which state 
has the largest population? (Table, p. 445.) The second largest? 
The smallest? Next to the smallest? (22) Draw a map showing 
the states on the Atlantic coast. Also make a map of those along 
the Pacific coast; along the Great Lakes; the Mississippi River; the 
Ohio; the Missouri. (23) What states border Mexico ? Canada? 

For References, see page 441. 



XIII. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF 
THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions: Alaska. — (1) Find Alaska on Figure 95. What 
waters surround it? What country bounds it on the east? (2) On 
Figure 250, locate Sitka, Circle City, Nome City, and Dawson City. 
(3) Trace the course of the Yukon. (4) Find the Aleutian Islands. 
What sea north of them ? (5) Find the Pribilof Islands. (6) From 
Figure 5, tell about the relief of Alaska. 

Cuba and Porto Rico. — (Map opposite, p. 331.) (7) Find these 
islands on Figure 95. (8) Which is the larger? What other large 
islands nearby? (9) AVhat waters bathe their shores? (10) Find 
Havana, Santiago de Cuba, Matanzas, Ponce, and San Juan. 

Hawaiian Islands. — See Figure 270. (11) Name the two largest 
islands. In what latitude do they lie ? (Fig. 360.) (12) On what island 
is Honolulu ? Hilo ? (13) How deep is the ocean near these islands ? 

Guam and Samoa. — See Figure 270. (II) In what latitude is 
each? (15) What harbor on the island of Tutuila? (16) How deep 
is the ocean near these islands ? (17) Find each on Figure 360. 

Philippine Islands. — See Figure 270. (18) Where are these located ? 
(Fig. 359.) (19) Name the two largest islands. (20) What should 
you expect the climate to be ? (21) Find Manila. On which island 
is it situated ? 

At the close of the Revolutionary War the United 
States consisted of thirteen small colonies along the At- 
lantic coast from Maine to Georgia. The United States 
claimed the land far into the wilderness, even to the dis- 
tant Mississippi. Beyond this was French and Spanish 
territory, while the whole Mississippi Valley was occupied 
by Indians. By purchase and by war we have acquired 
all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific which 

322 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



323 



has been described in the previous pages ; but our con- 
trol does not end with the boundaries of the United 
States proper. In 1867 we acquired Alaska, and in 1898 
we came into possession of a number of islands, some of 
them on the other side of the globe. Since these lands 
form a part of the territory controlled by our government, 
a study of them properly comes at this point. 



Alaska 

Climate and Physiography. — For a long time Alaska, 
which is more than twice as large as Texas, belonged to 




Fig. 251. 

Mt. St. Elias, Alaska, 18,100 feet high, and for a long time supposed to he the 
highest peak on the continent. 

Russia. That nation sold the territory to us for $7,200,000 ; 
but at the time many people considered it very unwise to 
pay so large a sum for so distant and desolate a land. 
However, it has already proved of great value, and has 
paid for itself many times over. 

Since the Arctic Circle extends across the northern 



324 THE UNITED STATES 

part of Alaska, it will be seen that the climate must be 
very uninviting. The winters are long and cold, and the 
summers short and cool. A strip of coast land extends 
southward from the main peninsula of Alaska, and to this 
the prevailing westerlies bring an abundance of rain and 
snow. Since these winds come from the ocean they also 
render the summer climate much more agreeable than in 
the northern part of the territory. In this portion is 
situated Sitka, the capital, where the governor of the 
territory lives. 

A large part of Alaska is mountainous, for the mountains 
of the United States and western Canada extend north- 
ward into this territory. Among these mountains are the 
loftiest peaks of the continent, the highest yet discovered 




Fig. 252. 
Snow-covered Alaskan mountains with a valley glacier descending into the sea. 

being Mt. McKinley, which is 20,464 feet high. Owing 
to the latitude, most of the mountains are snow-covered 
throughout the year (Fig. 251), and among them are in- 
numerable glaciers, many of which reach down to the 
sea (Fig. 252). 

One of the largest glaciers now on the continent, known as 
the Muir Glacier (Fig. 253), is located in Alaska not far north. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 325 

of Sitka. It is so wonderful and beautiful that many tourists 
visit it every year. Taking an excursion steamer from Taconia 
or Seattle, they sail all the way in protected bays and straits 
behind the mountainous islands which skirt the coast, where 
the scenery is grand beyond description. 

The map (Fig. 250) shows a long peninsula, ending in a chain 
of islands, the Aleutians, which form the southern boundary 





. 






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IlikK-. 


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?:>,:. 


KOetf 




. 







Fig. 253. 
Front of the Muir Glacier where it ends in the waters of Muir Inlet. 

of Bering Sea. This peninsula and the off -lying islands are, 
really a growing mountain chain ; and it was here, in 1795, 
that a new volcano suddenly broke forth, building a lofty cone 
where previously ships were able to sail. Altogether there are 
57 volcanoes in this chain, which has a length of 1600 miles. 

Fishing. — Among the resources of Alaska, as in the case 
of other far northern lands, those of the sea are especially 
important (p. 80). In the shallow waters near the coast 
both cod and halibut abound, while immense numbers of 
salmon run up the rivers every summer, as they do in 
northern United States and Canada (pp. 316 and 359). 
The fishing industry is only partly developed, chiefly 
because of the great distance from a profitable market ; 



326 



THE UNITED STATES 



but the waters of the Alaskan coast form an important 
fishing reserve for the future. 

Whaling. — Every year steamers, specially built for the pur- 
pose, venture through Bering Strait iDto the Arctic Ocean in 
search of the whale. It is a hazardous occupation, and but few 
ships are now engaged in it. They are obliged to push their 
way into the floe ice (Fig. 60), in which they are in danger of 
being imprisoned and held firmly through the winter. 




Fig. 254. 
A whale ashore, and a whaling steamer lying off in deep water. 

The whale, which is sometimes over a hundred feet long, is 
really a land animal which has taken up life in the sea, as seals 
and walruses have. Therefore, unlike the true fishes, which 
secure air from the water by means of gills, the whale must 
now and then rise to the surface for air. It is when rising to 
breathe, or " blow," that the huge creature is harpooned. 

One species of whale living in the Arctic supplies not only 
fat, or blubber, for oil, but also whale bone, a very elastic 
material which grows in the whale's mouth. Rushing through 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



327 



the sea with its mouth open, the whale strains the water 
through the fringes of the whale bone, and thus secures the 
thousands of tiny animals upon which it feeds. This bone 
is of use for various purposes, as, for instance, in women's 
dresses. 

Sealing. — In the Arctic are found many different kinds 
of seal. One of these, the fur seal, which lives in Bering 
Sea, is of great value because of its soft fur, which is 
much used for winter cloaks. During the greater part 
of the year 
the fur seals 
swim in the 
sea in search 
of food ; but 
in the spring, 
during the 
breeding sea- 
son, they re- 
sort to the Pri- 
bilof Islands. 
The United 
States gov- 
ernment prohibits all persons from killing them except 
one company, which pays a special tax for the privilege 
of securing a certain number each year. At the proper 
season the men select a number of males, — for a law 
forbids the taking of the females, — and drive them off 
for slaughter, much as sheep would be driven (Fig. 256). 

While the government permits no other persons to kill the 
seal on the Pribilof Islands, it possesses no power to protect 
those found swimming in the sea. Vessels from Canada and 
the United States, therefore, sail about over the sea, shooting 




Fig. 255. 

Fur seals among the rocks near the coast of one of the 
Pribilof Islands. 



328 



THE UXITED STATES 



all they find. Since they kill old and young, male and female, 
and wound many that afterward die, they are rapidly destroy- 
ing the fur seal, and threaten to exterminate it entirely. 




Fig. 256. 
Driving off a bunch of fur seal for slaughter. 

Mining. — While there is some opportunity for farming 
in southern Alaska, and the great tracts of forest land 

may be the seat 
of an important 
lumbering indus- 
try in the future, 
at present the 
most noted in- 
dustry of Alaska 
is gold mining. 
There are exten- 
sive deposits of 
gold, copper, 
coal, and other 
minerals; but 
they are so cliffi- 




Fig. 257. 

Juneau, nestled at the base of the mountains near 
some valuable gold mines. 



cult to reach that there has been little development of any 
of these except the first. A short distance north of Sitka, 
at Juneau (Fig. 257), there are some very paying gold 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



329 



mines ; and elsewhere in the territory gold mining is also 
carried on. 

Recently, Alaska and the neighboring Klondike region, 
just across the line in Canada, have attracted attention 
because of the discovery of rich deposits of gold-bearing 
gravels, somewhat like those found in California in 1848. 
Although a bleak, desolate region, far in the interior and 
difficult of access, men have rushed there, as years ago they 




Fig. 258. 

Miners, with their loads of supplies, at Chilcoot Pass, on the way to the 

Klondike. 

hurried to California. Some have gone overland across 
the mountain passes (Figs. 258 and 259) ; others have 
travelled an easier route by water, taking a steamer to the 
mouth of the Yukon River, one of the longest rivers on 
the continent. There they transferred to river boats ; 
but since the Yukon is frozen over during most of the 
year, this journey can be made only in summer. 

In the scramble for gold many persons have endured terri- 
ble hardships. Most have returned with little of the precious 



330 THE UNITED STATES 

metal, but some have brought back fortunes. Good-sized towns 
have grown up as a result of the inrush of people, the largest 
being Dawson City, Canada, and Circle City in Alaska, just 
south of the Arctic Circle. Another city that grew in a single 
season is Nome City. 

These hardy pioneers are opening up a country which, though 
naturally unattractive, is probably destined to become one of 
the great mineral-producing regions of the world. Most parts 




Fig. 259. 

Miners fording the icy waters of an Alaskan river, on the way to the Klon- 
dike. Two of them are harnessed to a wagon containing their supplies. 

of the Arctic lands must always be sparsely populated ; but rich 
deposits of precious metal will always suffice to attract large 
numbers of men. 

Cuba and Porto Rico 

While the United States has within recent years secured 
possession of bleak northern lands, it has still more re- 
cently come into control of some warm tropical islands. 
As a result of the war of 1898, Porto Rico was ceded to 









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TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 331 

the United States, and Cuba was given its independence, 
under the general guidance of the United States. 

Physiography and Climate. — Among the West Indies 
the largest island is Cuba, which is nearly as large as 
Pennsylvania, although much longer and narrower. The 
next in size is Haiti, and of the others the only two of 
much importance are Jamaica and Porto Rico, the latter 
being three-fourths the size of Connecticut. Cuba, Haiti, 
and Porto Rico form a portion of a single mountain chain, 
highest in Haiti, though reaching an elevation of 8600 
feet in Cuba. 

While there are tree-covered mountain ranges in each 
of the islands, the greater portion of Cuba and Porto Rico 
has been cleared and cultivated. This is especially true 
of Porto Rico, which is really an island of farms. Crops 
grow luxuriantly, partly because of the excellent soil, 
formed by the decay of the rocks, and partly because of 
the favorable climate. 

The islands are entirely within the tropical zone, so that 
their temperature throughout the year is high, and on the 
lowlands neither snow nor frost are known. They lie in 
the trade wind belt (Fig. 42) and therefore receive an 
abundance of rain, especially upon the northeastern or 
windward slopes, which the damp air from the ocean first 
reaches. The summer is the rainiest season, for then the 
winds blow with greater strength and steadiness. 

Forests and Minerals. — When first settled, the West Indies 
were covered by a dense tropical forest. Much of this has been 
cleared away for purposes of farming ; but some of the woods still 
remain, especially among the higher mountains. In Cuba, for 
instance, there is still considerable valuable timber, such as ma- 
hogany, ebony, and fustic, which produces a valuable yellow dye. 



332 



THE UNITED STATES 



Besides these raw products of the soil, there is considerable 
mineral wealth in Cuba. Copper is found there, and also iron, 
the latter having been mined for a long time in the neighbor- 
hood of Santiago. 

Agriculture. — However, it is agriculture that forms the 
chief industry of the Cubans and Porto Ricans. As in all 
the West Indies, the principal crop is sugar-cane (Fig. 
317), which grows well in the rich soil and the warm, 
rainy climate. Although much sugar is raised, the indus- 




Fig. 261. 
A Cuban ox team. 

try has not proved very profitable because of the primitive 
methods employed and the absence of a good market. 
Now that the United States controls these islands great 
improvement should take place. 

Sugar production is carried on in Cuba much as it is in 
Louisiana (p. 213). After the cane is cut, the sap is 
extracted and reduced to brown sugar in sugar houses, 
and then sent away to be manufactured into white sugar. 
Two of the products of the sugar plantations are molasses, 
and rum, which is made of molasses. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



333 



A second important crop is tobacco, for which Cuba is 
especially noted. There is one district, on the western 
end of the island, where the rich, limey soil and the climate 
are peculiarly suited to the growth of the best quality of 
tobacco. At Havana and other places it is manufactured 
into cigars, which bring high prices — the Havana cigar 
being considered the best that is made. What has been 
said about Key West in Florida? 

Upon the hillslopes much coffee is produced, and some tea 
and cocoa. The coffee plant not only requires a good soil, but 
must be grown in the shade of trees. Spices, including nut- 
meg, cinnamon, and ginger, are products of the West Indies, 
also pepper, cardamom, vanilla, and pimento or allspice. Such 
fruits as bananas, oranges, limes, pineapples, and cocoanuts are 
also produced ; but, because of the poor market, in small quan- 
tities. In the future much more attention will doubtless be 
paid to fruit raising. Indeed, both Cuba and Porto Rico will 
probably become not only winter 
gardens, supplying fruit and vege- 
tables to the United States, but 
also important winter resorts. 

The United States has been 
able to raise almost all products 
of the soil that we have required, 
with the exception of the trop- 
ical and semi-tropical crops, such 
as tea, rice, coffee, sugar, spices, 
and tropical fruits ; and our 
newly acquired islands are capa- 
ble of supplying even these. 

The Inhabitants. — Both Cuba and Porto Rico are 
densely populated, although in Cuba's war with Spain 




Fig. 262. 
A Cuban boat. 



334 



THE UNITED STATES 



thousands upon thousands of the inhabitants were killed in 
battle or starved to death. Property had been destroyed, 
and the island devastated to such an extent that it will 
be many years before a full tide of prosperity returns. 

Many of the natives are of mixed blood. The aborigi- 
nes did not prove good slaves to their Spanish conquerors, 
and negro slaves were brought from Africa. Therefore, 
while pure-blooded Spaniards are numerous, many of the 




Fig. 263. 
The harbor of Havana. 



inhabitants of Cuba and Porto Rico are negroes, either 
full blooded or half-breeds. The Spanish have kept these 
natives very poor and densely ignorant; but they are 
capable of advancement under proper guidance, and this, 
it is hoped, they will receive from the United States. 

Cities. — Owing largely to an entire lack of coal and 
to the policy of the Spaniards, there has been very little 
manufacturing ; but nevertheless there are several impor- 
tant cities, principally along the coast, at points where 
there are remarkably fine harbors. The largest of these is 



TERBITOBIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



335 



Havana in Cuba, a city of 200,000 inhabitants, and for 
a long time the centre of the Spanish dominion in America. 
Another large city in Cuba is Santiago de Cuba, where 
the Spanish ships were sunk in 1898 (see map, Fig. 260). 
A third important city, with an excellent harbor, is 

M AT AN Z AS. 

Railway lines connect some of these cities and also reach 
out into the agricultural districts, thus serving to bring 




Fig. 264. 
A street in San Juan. 

the crops to these points for shipment. However, many 
of the towns are not connected by rail ; and since there 
are few good wagon roads, they have almost no communi- 
cation with the outside world, excepting by boat. 

The conditions in Porto Rico are nearly the same as in 
Cuba, though it is less wooded than Cuba and more 
completely cultivated. Along the lower sections, near 
the coast, sugar and tobacco are raised ; the low moun- 
tains produce excellent coffee,- one of the most important 



336 THE UNITED STATES 

products of the island ; and the slopes between are largely 
occupied by herds of cattle. As in Cuba, there are a 
number of coastal cities, the largest being Ponce and 
San Juan (Fig. 264), the capital. 

The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 270) 

The Volcanoes. — Far out in the mid-Pacific, not quite 
a third of the distance from the Pacific coast to the Phil- 
ippine Islands, is a mountain chain fifteen hundred miles 
long, most of which lies beneath the ocean. From this 




Fig. 265. 
Lake of liquid lava in one of the craters of the Hawaiian volcanoes. 

long, submarine ridge there rise several volcanic peaks, 
forming a chain of islands, known as the Sandwich or 
Hawaiian Islands. The largest is Hawaii, which is nearly 
as large as Connecticut. 

Each of the islands is composed chiefly of lava which 
has been erupted from within the earth. Two of the large 
Hawaiian volcanoes are still active, the largest, Mauna 



TEBBITOBIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



337 




Loa, extending nearly fourteen thousand feet above the sea. 
From the coast the sea bottom descends so rapidly that, 
within a few miles of the shore, a depth of eighteen thou- 
sand feet is 
found. There- 
fore, if the water 
should be re- 
moved, a moun- 
tain peak would 
be revealed 
rising nearly 
thirty-two thou- 
sand feet above 
its base — a lof- 
tier mountain 
than any known 
on the land. 

Climate. — The latitude of the Hawaiian Islands is about 
the same as that of Cuba and Porto Rico. Being in the 
midst of the broad Pacific, and therefore surrounded by 
warm ocean water, the climate near sea level is warm and 
wonderfully equable. From day to night, and even from 
summer to winter, the thermometer varies only a few 
degrees. As in the West Indies, the trade winds blow 
steadily and bring an abundance of rain to the windward 
northeastern slopes. The opposite or leeward slopes are 
very much drier, and in places even arid. 

Island Life. — When these islands were first visited by white 
men, they were inhabited by a strange, dark-skinned race of 
savages. A luxuriant vegetation covered the land, and there 
were a number of native animals, though none of these were of 
great size, the largest being birds, bats, mice, and lizards. It 



Fig. 266. 

A lava cascade, where the melted rock has cooled as 
it fell over the edge of a low cliff. 



338 



THE UNITED STATES 



is an interesting question to ask how men, plants, and animals 
ever reached these islands which are 2700 miles from Amer- 
ica, and more than 5000 miles from Asia. 

It is now known that the seeds of plants, and even birds and 
insects, are drifted to the ocean islands by means of winds. On 
the Bermuda Islands, for instance, which lie 600 miles east 
of the Carolina coast, the plants and animals are like those of 
the neighboring mainland. Every year robins, sparrows, and 
sometimes even tiny humming-birds, alight there for a rest 
after the long and perilous journey which they have been 
forced to undertake because of the strong winds which have 
driven them out to sea. 

Birds, insects, and seeds may be carried not only by the 
wind, but also by the ocean currents, in which they float, cling- 
ing to logs until 
they are perhaps 
stranded on the 
shores of some 
ocean island. It 
is in this way 
that the islands 
have become in- 
habited by plants 
and animals ; but 
large animals, not 
being able to trav- 
el long distances 
in this manner, 
are rarely found on ocean islands far from the continents. 

It is probable that men have reached these islands in much 
the same way. Venturing out too far in their canoes, or driven 
from shore by the winds, they have been carried on and on 
until they have reached strange lands which they were obliged 
to accept as their homes. In this manner, it is believed, people 
from southern Asia and the East Indies, have spread eastward 
to the Philippine Islands, to the small islands that dot the 
Pacific, and even so far away as the Hawaiian Islands. 







F"il| 




-Mm 


If •■--fSsj 


f 1 


- 


Ik'fi*"*^* - 


9sk 




1 " 






- 1 



Fig. 267. 
Building a grass hut iu the Hawaiian Islands. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



339 




Industries. — The Hawaiian Islanders are an intelligent 
race, resembling the natives of other Pacific islands. Since 
white men brought in new methods of agriculture, the 
larger islands have become fairly productive, the principal 
crop being sugar. Coffee, tropical fruits, and rice (Fig. 
268) are other 
products, the last 
being cultivated 
by the Chinese, 
who make up a 
large part of the 
foreign popula- 
tion. There are 
also many Jap- 
anese, P o r t u - 
guese, and Amer- 
icans. The chief 
market has been the United States, especially San Fran- 
cisco. In fact these islands formed one of the principal 
sources of food supply for the early Californian miners. 

The white men's interests in the Hawaiian Islands led 
to a revolution some years ago, by which these men took 
control of affairs from the native queen, set up an inde- 
pendent government, and offered themselves to the United 
States as a territory. After some delay this offer was 
accepted. 

While many of the inhabitants are engaged in agri- 
culture, large numbers are gathered in small villages along 
the seacoast. There are only two cities, Honolulu 
(Fig. 269), on the island of Oahu, and Hilo, on Hawaii. 

The Hawaiian Islands as a Coaling Station. — During the war 
with Spain the Hawaiian Islands were of importance to the 



Fig. 2(58. 
Planting rice in the Hawaiian Islands. 



340 



THE UNITED STATES 



United States as a coaling station for ships bound to the Philip- 
pine Islands. The distance from San Francisco to the Phil- 
ippines is somewhat more than seven thousand miles. If we 
wish to send a warship there from the Pacific coast, it is quite 
necessary that it should find a place on the way at which it 
could obtain coal. Such a ship might carry perhaps eight hun- 
dred tons of coal; but as it may burn from sixty to seventy 
tons a day, this would last less than two weeks, while the 
journey across would require more than three weeks. There- 
fore the government needs a place where it can store large 




Fig. 269. 
The harbor of Honolulu. 

quantities of coal, perhaps as much as from ten to twenty-five 
thousand tons, to be used in case of need. All large naval 
powers need coaling stations in various parts of the ocean. 
Great Britain, the greatest power upon the sea, has them scat- 
tered all over the world. 



Guam and Samoa 

For a number of years the United States, Germany, and 
England had control over the Samoan Islands (Fig. 270) ; but 
this arrangement did not prove satisfactory, and now Tutuila, 
one of the islands, is owned by the United States. This tiny 
island is of little value to us excepting as a coaling station 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Ml 

at the harbor of Pago Pago (Fig. 270). The natives are of the 
same race as those of the other islands of the open Pacific. They 
are splendidly developed physically, and manage a boat and 
swim so well that they are almost as much at home in the water 
as on land. The principal products are cocoanuts and cotton, 
and the chief city is Apia, on Upolu, which belongs to Germany. 
In consequence of the war with Spain, we obtained the 
island of Guam, one of the Laclrones or Robbers' Islands, some 
distance east of the Philippines. These islands, the loftiest 
peaks of a submarine mountain chain, were first seen by Ma- 
gellan, who was later killed by the natives of the Philippines. 
Guam, the largest of the Ladrones, reaches an elevation of from 
fifteen to eighteen hundred feet above the sea; but it is so 
small, and so far away, that it also is of little service to us 
except as a coaling station for vessels. 

The Philippine Islands 

Physiography. — This group of islands, or archipelago, 
consists of several thousand separate islands, many of 
which are very small. The largest, Luzon, is about the 
size of Kentucky, and the second, Mindanao, is almost as 
large. Like the West Indies and the Hawaiian Islands, 
the Philippines are portions of mountain chains in the sea. 
They form part of a still greater chain, reaching north- 
ward to the Japanese Islands and beyond. 

Throughout the archipelago earthquakes are common and 
sometimes very destructive to property and to life; for in- 
stance, the earthquake of 1863 destroyed a large part of 
Manila. The earth is in an almost constant state of tremor, 
though most of the shocks are so slight that they are detected 
only by the aid of delicate instruments. In addition to earth- 
quakes, there have at times been destructive volcanic erup- 
tions. Some of the volcanic cones of the Philippines reach to 
a height of 8000 to 10,000 feet. 



342 



THE UNITED STATES 



"While parts of the islands are mountainous and still covered 
by forests, there are many valleys that have been cleared for 
farming. In these the soil is usually deep and fertile, being 
formed by the decay of lavas, limestones, and other rocks rich 
in plant food. 

Since none of the islands are very large, there can of course 
be no great rivers ; but many of them are so deep near their 




Fig. 271. 
Philippine boats, really logs with the centre dug out. 

mouths that small steamboats are able to navigate the lower 
portions of all of the larger streams. Near the volcanoes there 
are lakes formed by the lava damming up the streams. 

Climate. — Besides earthquakes and volcanoes, the Phil- 
ippines are visited by those terrific tropical storms 
known as hurricanes in the West Indies, and typhoons in 
the East Indies. These storms resemble the cyclonic 
storms of the Northern States (p. 53), excepting that 
they are many times more violent. Commencing in the 
heated belt near the equator, they develop intense energy, 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



343 



and move slowly off into the temperate latitudes. They 
are accompanied by a terrific downpour of rain and by 
winds so violent that houses are torn to pieces, and trees 
dragged out by their roots. During these storms much 
property is destroyed, and many lives are often lost. 

As in the West Indies, the climate of the Philippines is 
that of the tropics — always warm, and sometimes very 
hot, especially at a distance from the sea. They have 
a heavy rainfall, the year being divided into the dry 
and rainy seasons. The former comes during the winter 
months, the latter in the summer. The dry period lasts 
while the trade winds blow from the northeast, and then 







7KS\ ,-- ,<••», 


gg«SSE^gyj!W" 








PH 


Rt^^SB 






























Sr9 - 


I 


\ . ■—(& 


v- 


Bllllllii 


'iftlllll 


|>jJTcj*3l 


IT 


'i 


f£%gg. 















Fig. 272. 
Philippine natives and the domesticated huffalo. 

the fields often become parched and cracked, and the roads 
very dusty. In the summer, however, the winds change 
to the southeast, forming a part of the great summer 
monsoon of Asia (p. 40). These winds, blowing from 
the warm, humid equatorial belt, deluge the islands with 
rain to such an extent that much of the country becomes 



3-4-4 THE UNITED STATES 

a swamp, and travel is almost impossible. The showers 
are local ; and while a heavy downpour occurs in one 
place, there may be no rain a short distance away on the 
leeward slopes. 

The natives have domesticated a native wild animal, the 
water buffalo (Fig. 272), which is so accustomed to the mud 
that it can be driven about during this wet season. This draft 
animal is of great use, especially in the rice fields, which are 
kept wet during the growing season. The buffalo prefers wet 
walking to dry, and, in fact, must have a daily plunge in the 
mud and water. 

Because of this damp climate, the Philippine houses are 
so built that the lower story is used for storage, as a cellar 
is in our country. This raises the inhabited part of the 
house above the damp ground. 

Resources and Industries. — Owing to the tropical warmth 
and dampness and to the excellent soil, the uncultivated 
parts of the islands are covered with a dense tropical forest, 
containing many valuable woods. As in other tropical 
forests, there are immense numbers of animals, especially 
insects, serpents, and beautiful birds. Among the serpents 
are the huge python and the deadly cobra di capello. 
There are also deer, apes, wild hogs, wild buffalo, huge 
bats, and man-eating crocodiles. 

The inhabitants of the Philippines number from eight 
to ten millions, about one-half of whom are civilized ; but 
there are still many savages on some of the islands, es- 
pecially in the dense forests. Two very different races 
occupy the islands, — the aborigines and the Malays. The 
former, a race of small, dark-skinned savages, are called 
Negritos, a Spanish word meaning little negroes. They 
have been gradually forced to retreat to the forests by 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



345 



the more powerful and intelligent Malays. Besides the 
Negritos, the various tribes of Malays, and the half-breeds, 
many Chinese traders and Spaniards live on the islands. 

Under the influence of the Spaniards, the more civilized 
tribes, whom Magellan found in a savage state, have cleared 
the land and have reached a fairly high grade of civilization. 
Their wants are few, and very little work suffices to keep them 
supplied with what they need. Cocoanuts and bananas are 
easily obtained, and rice, yams, and other plant foods may be 




Fig. 273. 
Philippine boys making cigars. 

raised with very little effort. There is, therefore, no special 
reason for working hard ; and, in fact, in that climate hard 
work is almost impossible. 

The riches of the forest are scarcely utilized at all. Among 
the valuable woods are ebony, the rubber tree from which 
gutta percha is obtained, and a palm from the sap of which 
alcohol may be made. Cinnamon, cloves, and pepper also 
grow there. 

The mineral resources appear to be extensive, although 
almost entirely undeveloped, since the Spaniards never en- 
couraged mining there. Gold is known to exist in Luzon, and 
silver, coal, petroleum, marble, and sulphur also occur. 



346 THE UNITED STATES 

Aside from plant products consumed at home, some 
cocoa, coffee, sugar, and tobacco are raised for export, the 
latter being manufactured into cigars at Manila (Fig. 
273). This is almost the sole manufacturing of impor- 
tance, and the inhabitants depend upon Europe and 
America for all but the very simplest materials, which 
they themselves produce. 

Hemp is the best-known export of these islands, which 
supply the world with the fibre used in making the better 
grades of Manila rope. Hemp is made from the fibre of a 
wild plantain, which so closely resembles the banana that 
an inexperienced person cannot easily tell the two apart. 
In order to obtain the fibre, the plant is cut and allowed 
to wilt for a short time, then drawn between a block of 
wood and a knife, in order to scrape the pulp away. The 
fibre is spread for several hours in the sun to dr} r , and 
then pressed into bales for shipping. Since the work is 
crudely done by natives, without the aid of machinery, 
about 40 per cent of the fibre is wasted. 

The castor bean grows wild on many of the islands, and its 
oil is extracted for many local purposes. Cocoanut palms also 
flourish, and great rafts of cocoanuts are shipped down the 
rivers to the sea. From this nut an oil is made that is used 
in lamps and sometimes in the manufacture of a substitute for 
lard. Much of the dried meat of the nut is shipped to Europe 
to be used in soap making. 

One of the most remarkable plants of the island is the rattan, 
which is put by the natives to a thousand uses, such as making 
ropes, houses, canoes, frames, carts, beds, and chairs. Many of 
the natives make a living by splitting and marketing the cane. 
The bamboo is also of great value, being considered indispensa- 
ble by the natives (Fig. 274). This plant grows from one inch 
to eighteen inches in diameter, and from five to seven feet in 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



347 



height. It is used in making the frames, sides, and even the roofs 
of houses, and also rafts, boats, agricultural implements, bows, 
bowstrings, arrows, spoons, forks, and many other articles. 

Under the Spanish rule the people of the Philippines 
were greatly oppressed, and the industries only partly de- 
veloped. Large portions of the islands were left in a wild 
state ; and even in the best-settled regions little attempt 
was made to develop the resources. The islands are able 
to produce not only quantities of sugar, rice, tobacco, coffee, 
and cocoa, but 
also much more 
hemp than at 
present. What 
has been said 
about the valu- 
able forest and 
mineral prod- 
ucts ? 

There is a 
promising fut- 
ure in the proper 
development of 
all the resources 
of these islands, and the civilized natives are able to help 
in the work. Many of them are educated and cultivated, 
living in excellent homes and surrounded by luxuries. 
In religion, most of the inhabitants belong to the Roman 
Catholic faith, which was introduced in their early settle- 
ment by the Spaniards. However, the natives of the Sulu 
Islands, called Moros, are Mohammedans. These Moros 
are ruled by a Sultan under the general guidance of the 
United States. 




Fig. 274. 

A Philippine lumber yard, where bamboo is the lum- 
ber. Compare this with Figures 105 and 223. 



348 THE UNITED STATES 

Cities. — In the Philippine group there are many cities 
having a population of more than ten thousand, and a 
number have as many inhabitants as Gloucester, Mass., 
Jacksonville, Fla., or Butte, Mont. However, there is at 
present only one city of great importance in the archi- 
pelago, namely, Manila, on the island of Luzon, a city 
nearly as large as Denver. It is situated upon an excel- 
lent harbor, and was for a long time the centre of the 
Spanish government in the Philippines. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Questions: Alaska. — (1) From whom was Alaska obtained? 
How? (2) Describe the climate. (3) Name and locate the capital. 
(4) What are the surface features ? (5) Describe the Muir Glacier. 
(6) Tell about the volcanoes. (7) What kinds of fish are found? 
(8) Describe whaling. What valuable products are obtained ? (9) Tell 
about the seals: — where found; habits; efforts to protect them; 
method of killing; their value. (10) Describe mining in Alaska: — 
minerals found ; location of the gold mines ; cities that have grown 
up ; the rush of gold seekers ; the change that they have brought about. 

Suggestions. — (11) Collect some whale bone. (12) Collect pic- 
tures of Alaska. (13) Find out what people thought when the pur- 
chase of Alaska was being considered. (14) Try to find some one 
who has been in Alaska, and have him tell you about the country. 

(15) How does the area of Alaska compare with that of the United 
States proper? With your own state? (See tables, pp. 445 and 447.) 

(16) Measure the length of the Yukon and compare it with the 
Mackenzie and the Mississippi. (17) Draw an outline map of Alaska. 

Questions: Cuba and Porto Rico. — (18) Name the principal 
islands of the West Indies. (19) Tell about their relief. Their cli- 
mate. (20) What is the reason for the heavy rains of summer? 
(21) What about the forests and their peculiar products? The min- 
erals? (22) Name the principal farm products, and tell about each. 
(23) Tell about the inhabitants. (24) Why so little manufacturing? 
(25) Name and locate the chief cities in Cuba and Porto Rico. 

Suggestions. — (26) Estimate the length and the average breadth 
of Cuba. (27) How do its two leading cities compare in size with 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 349 

the two largest in Pennsylvania? (Table, p. 448.) (28) What prod- 
ucts of Cuba and Porto Rico are also raised in the United States? 
Where? (29) State some advantage that Cuba enjoys over Louisiana 
in the production of sugar. (30) In what respects are the inhabi- 
tants similar to those of Mexico? (31) How is our control of these 
islands liable to prove of benefit to us ? To the islands themselves ? 
(32) Make a sketch map of Cuba and Porto Rico. 

Questions : The Hawaiian Islands. — (33) Where are the islands ? 
(34) How have they been formed ? (35) Tell about the volcanoes. 
(36) About the climate. (37) How have they probably become 
inhabited by plants, animals, and men? (38) Name the leading 
products. (39) The principal cities. (40) How did the islands 
come into our possession? (41) Of what use are they to us ? 

Suggestions. — (42) Why should you expect much the same 
products in the Hawaiian Islands as in Cuba? (43) Why is not the 
summer very hot in this tropical region ? (44) What city on the 
Eastern coast should be associated with San Francisco as important 
for refining sugar? (45) Explain the presence of many Chinese and 
Japanese in these islands. 

Questions : The Philippine Islands. — (46) Name the two largest 
islands. (47) How have the islands been formed? (48) Tell about 
the earthquakes. The soil. The livers. (49) About the hurricanes, 
and the dry and rainy seasons. (50) What about Philippine houses? 
Draft animals? (51) Tell about the forests and wild animals. 
(52) About the native inhabitants. (53) About the farm products. 
(54) About the manufacturing. (55) What are the future prospects 
of the islands ? (56) Locate the principal city. 

Suggestions. — (57) Compare the latitude of the islands with 
that of the West Indies and of the Hawaiian Islands. (58) In what 
other places thus far studied have volcanoes abounded? (59) Col- 
lect pictures of scenes in the Philippines. (60) Obtain a piece of 
Manila hemp rope for the school collection; also a piece of bam- 
boo and of rattan. (61) Tell about Dewey's capture of Manila. 
(62) Make a sketch map of the islands. 

General Questions. — (63) Name the dependencies of the 
United States. (64) Walk toward each. (65) Name the principal 
products of each. (66) In what zones do they lie? (67) How did 
we obtain each ? 

For References, see pages 441-412. 



Paet III 

OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH 
AMERICA 

XIV. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Trace the boundary between United 
States and Canada. Which part of it is natural boundary? (2) Which 
states border on Canada ? (3) Why are there so many lakes in the 
Dominion ? (4) Name the seven largest (including the Great Lakes). 
(5) Name the five largest rivers ; tell in which direction each flows 
and where it empties. (6) Where are the large cities? (7) What 
are the names of the largest? (8) Can you see any reasons for their 
location? (9) Trace the Arctic Circle across Canada. (10) Compare 
the latitude of Labrador with that of England (Fig. 360). Why are 
there so few inhabitants in the former ? (See p. 92.) (11) Draw an out- 
line map of Canada, inserting the important rivers, lakes, and cities. 

Canada and Newfoundland 

As we have learned, the northwestern extremity of 
North America is in possession of the United States ; but 
almost all of the remaining land north of our country- 
belongs to Canada. 

History. — While the British were founding the thirteen 
colonies, the French occupied the coast of eastern Canada 
and made settlements along the St. Lawrence valley, as at 

351 



S52 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

Quebec and Montreal. Even now four out of every five 
persons in the Province of Quebec speak French as their 
mother-tongue. The French and English were often at 
war ; but finally England, aided by her colonies, acquired 
control of all the French possessions north of the United 
States, except the small islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre, 
which are still retained by the French as fishing stations. 
After the Revolutionary War, Canada still remained in 
the possession of Great Britain. There were at first sev- 
eral colonies, or provinces, with separate governments, 
though all were under the control of Great Britain ; but 
in 1867 these were united to form the Dominion of Can- 
ada. Each of the seven provinces — Nova Scotia, Prince 
Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Mani- 
toba, and British Columbia — now has a government of its 
own, as our states have ; but by their union they also have 
a central government with the capital at Ottawa, which 
corresponds to our capital at Washington. 

Besides these provinces, there are four organized territories : 
Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca; and also a 
number of unorganized territories, or territories without a regu- 
larly organized government. Most of the latter are practically 
a wilderness and of little importance at present. Their names 
will be found on the map (Fig. 275). 

Newfoundland has refused to join this federation, so that, 
while still a province of Great Britain, it has no connection 
with Canada. Under the government of Newfoundland is in- 
cluded, not only the island, but also the east coast of Labrador. 

As in the case of the United States, the early settlements 
in Canada were made in the east, though westward migration 
has now opened up not merely the interior, but even the moun- 
tainous western part. At present, the population is over five 
million, more than one-fourth of whom are French. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 353 



Physiography and Climate. — The climate of southern 
Canada is similar to that of northern United States, though 
of course slightly cooler. Its physiography is nearly the 
same also ; and since the glacier, which spread over north- 
eastern United States, had its origin in Canada, the effects 
are found there, as here. Lakes, falls, and rapids abound, 
and the soil is made of glacial drift. 

The surface of eastern Canada is much like the surface 
of New England ; and, as in New England, there is much 
beautiful scen- 
ery. One of the 
most noted re- 
gions on the 
continent is the 
Saguenay River, 
a tributary of 
the St. Law- 
rence, which en- 
ters that river 
below Quebec. 
It occupies a 
deep valley 
bounded by 
cliffs, which in 




Fig. 276. 

A view along the line of the Canadian Pacific Rail- 
way in British Columbia. 



places reach from a thousand to eighteen hundred feet 
above the water, some of them rising almost vertically. 
In places, too, the water is from six to eight hundred feet 
deep ; and the scenery resembles that of the fjords of 
Norway. Indeed, it is of the same origin, being a river 
valley partly drowned by the sinking of the land, as in 
the case of the Hudson. The scenery is so wonderful 
that many tourists visit the Saguenay each year. 
2a 



354 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



That section of Canada which lies north of Ohio and 
New York is more level, like those states, and it is the 
most important farming region in the Dominion. Farther 
west, north of Dakota and Montana, are broad plains (Fig. 
288), arid in the western part, and increasing in elevation 
to the very base of the Rocky Mountains. After crossing 

these plains, 
the Canadian 
Pacific Rail- 
way, which ex- 
tends from the 
Atlantic to the 
Pacific coast, 
follows the val- 
leys among the 
mountains, and 
climbs to the 
passes amidst 
canyons, gla- 
ciers, and snow- 
capped peaks 

(Figs. 276-278). Name the mountains (Fig. 275). The 
scenery of this region is wonderfully beautiful and inter- 
esting, and the railway passes through the midst of it. A 
portion of this wonderland has been set aside as a national 
park by the Canadian government. 

The headwaters of the Yukon River, mentioned under 
Alaska (p. 329), are in Canada; and farther east than this is 
the Mackenzie River, one of the largest on the continent. It 
is 2000 miles long. What three large lakes drain into the 
Mackenzie ? Why is that river of little use for navigation ? 
What other large Canadian rivers drain into northern waters ? 




Fig. 277. 

A view among the mountains of British Columbia, 
through which the Canadian Pacific passes. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 355 



How would they be more useful if they draiuecl southward, as 
the Mississippi does ? 

Canada shares with the United States the privileges of 
navigation on all the Great Lakes, with one exception. 
Which is it ? In addition to these great waterways, the 
lower St. Lawrence is entirely in Canada ; but on account 
of the severe winters this is not so great an advantage as 
might at first appear. Why ? 

There are numerous rapids in the St. Lawrence, over 
which vessels cannot pass ; but large ship canals have 
been built around these. Now, therefore, all but the large 
ocean steamers 
are able to go 
from the open 
ocean to the 
western part 
of Lake Supe- 
rior, a distance 
of twenty-four 
hundred miles. 
In this re- 
spect the Cana- 
dian route has 
a great advan- 
tage over the 
Erie Canal 
route upon 

which only small canal boats can go. However, there is a 
movement on foot to deepen the Erie Canal so that lake 
vessels can pass through it also. 

Although southern Canada closely resembles the United 
States in climate and physiography, toward the north the coun- 




Fm. 278. 

One of the snow-capped mountain peaks of British 
Columbia. 



356 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



try rapidly grows colder, until, in the extreme northern por- 
tion, the climate is frigid (p. 77). There the sea is frozen 
over in winter, and in summer it is covered with floating 
ice (Fig. 60). Even in midsummer large patches of snow are 
seen upon the land. 

In the southern portion of Canada many people have their 
homes. Then comes a forest-covered belt inhabited by Ind- 
ians, a few trappers, and large numbers of wild animals (p. 78). 
It is in this region that the Hudson Bay Company has many 
trading stations for the purchase of skins from the Indians and 

other hunters. This company 
has been of great importance 
in the development of Can- 
ada, for it has explored much 
of the wilderness and opened 
it up for settlement. Toward 
the north the forest merges 
into scattered timber, resem- 
bling the timber line of the 
mountain slopes (Fig. 74) ; 
and beyond this are the great 
barrens, or tundras (p. 78). 
Few large animals live there 
and almost no human beings, 
excepting scattered colonies 

of Eskimos alonej the coast. 
Fig. 279. ° 

A winter scene in the woods of New Lumbering. — The for- 

Brunswick. egtg wMch CQver northern 

Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont extend into the hilly 
and mountainous section of New Brunswick and southern 
Quebec. In fact, from there westward to the Pacific, 
sweeping northward around the vast plains of Manitoba, 
this forest tract is from two to three hundred miles wide, 
and is estimated to include fully a million square miles. 
In the east the principal trees are spruce, balsam fir, pines, 





SIrP 






»jjpi»a 




mm 




\ 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 357 



and maples, while in the west are spruces, mammoth 
cedars, sometimes sixty feet in circumference, and the 
Douglas fir, which in some instances attains a height of 
three hundred feet (Fig. 280). This forest is so nearly 
in its primitive state that there are few parts of the conti- 
nent where the hunt- 
ing is so good. 

Lumbering is carried 
on in much the same 
manner as in the United 
States (p. 127). In the 
east the principal river 
down which the logs are 
floated to the sea is the 
St. John, upon which are 
situated Eredericton, 
the capital of New Bruns- 
wick, and St. John, the 
largest city in that prov- 
ince. In these two cities 
the logs are transformed 
into wood pulp and lum- 
ber. Immense quanti- 
ties are shipped every 
year from the seaport of 
St. John. 

In Nova Scotia, Prince 




Fig. 280. 

One of the giant trees of British Columbia. 
Notice how small the man appears. 



Edward Island, and that part of Canada which borders Lakes 
Erie and Ontario, much of the timber has been cut off ; but for 
scores of years the extensive forests of other parts of Canada 
and of Newfoundland will continue to supply lumber. 

At present the woods of Canada are one of its greatest 
sources of wealth ; the lumbering industry is so important 
that there are hundreds of sawmills at the rapids on the 



358 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

streams, and even in the great cities. Among the latter, 
Ottawa, Toronto, and Montreal are important, espe- 
cially in the manufacture of lumber into such articles as 
doors, blinds, barrels, and furniture. 




Fig. 281. 
A lumbering scene in New Brunswick. 

Fishing. — It was the excellent fishing off the eastern 
coast of Canada that first attracted the French to America, 
and fishing is still an important industry in Canada. Fully 
fifty thousand people in Newfoundland and the eastern 
provinces, especially Nova Scotia and Prince Edward 
Island, are engaged in cod fishing. One of the best fish- 
ing ports is Yarmouth in Nova Scotia, although a great 
deal of fishing is carried on from Halifax, Nova Scotia, 
St. John's, Newfoundland, and many smaller places. 

Inland fishing is also important. The streams and lakes of 
Canada still abound in trout, pickerel, and other fish, as did 
those of New England when that region was first settled. 
Many white fish are caught in the larger lakes for the market. 
The salmon, too, is found in eastern Canada; but instead of 
being caught in large numbers to be sold, as in the West, they 
are carefully protected. Indeed, most of the salmon streams 



COUNTRIES NOliTH OF THE UNITED STATES 359 

are under private control, and at the proper season only the 
owners and their friends are permitted to catch them for sport. 




Fig. 282. 
Boats setting nets to catch salmon off the coast of British Colnmhia. 

Fishing is important on the west coast, especially for 
salmon, which are caught in Maine (p. 139), western 
United States (p. 316), and Alaska. Great numbers of 
salmon come to the Canadian rivers every year to spawn, 
pushing their way up stream, in spite of many natural 
obstacles. Sometimes, in order to get beyond waterfalls, 




Fig. 283. 
Nets set to trap the salmon. 



they must leap many feet into the air (Fig. 248), and it 
is interesting to watch the skill with which they are able 



360 



OTIIEB COUNTRIES OF XOBTII AMEBIC A 



to spring out of the water and land in the foaming torrent 
at the crest of the falls. Sometimes thev fail, hut ret urn - 




Fig. 281. 
Hundreds of salmon in a cannery. 

ing to the task, they try again and again until successful. 
It is believed that a salmon always returns to the same 
river. 

While travelling up the streams they are easily caught 
in nets set across the current (Fig. 282), or by dip nets 
in the hands of fishermen (Fig. 248), or sometimes by 



i II 




-v.. 

m 



Fig. 285. 
Salmon cans in a Canadian cannery. There are fully 60,000 cans in this room. 

salmon wheels (Fig. 2-49). Immense numbers of salmon 
are canned in western Canada (Figs. 28-4 and 285) as well 
as along the Columbia River and in Alaska. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 361 

Sealing. — We have already learned (p. 327) about the seal 
fishing in Alaska. Seals are also found on the eastern side of 
Canada, but their fur is of little value. It is the layer of fat, 
or blubber, just beneath the skin, that is chiefly sought, because 
it is useful in the manufacture of oil. The Labrador seals 
rear their young on the fields of floating ice that drift south- 
ward in the Labrador current (Fig. 62). To reach these 
animals, strongly built steamers (Fig. 60) start out from 




Fig. 286. 
Newfoundland sealers killing seals on the floe ice off the coast of Labrador. 

St. John's, Newfoundland, in the early spring, as soon as the 
ice has begun to break up enough for ships to push their way 
through. Upon reaching a group of seals, scores of men rush 
out upon the ice and kill as many as possible (Fig. 286) ; then 
they return to remove the skin and blubber. 

After the sealing season, which is over by May or June, 
some of these stoutly built steamers fit out for a cruise to the 
Arctic in search of the whale, which lives on the eastern side 
of America as well as north of Alaska (p. 326). 



362 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



Agriculture and Ranching. — What was said about the 
agriculture and grazing of northern United States applies 
quite fully to Canada. The warm, damp winds from the 




Fig. 287. 
Cattle on the Great Plains of western Canada. 

Pacific render the climate of southern British Columbia 
much like that of Washington (p. 286) — an excellent one 
for wheat and hardy fruits. 




Fig. 288. 
Sheep on the plains of western Canada. 



Farther east, especially on the plains at the base of the 
Rocky Mountains, in the provinces of Alberta and Assini- 
boia, the climate is too arid for farming. Therefore, 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 363 

ranching is of importance, as in Montana and western 
Dakota (pp. 248 and 302). Immense herds of sheep 
(Fig. 288) and cattle (Fig. 287) are reared on these 
broad plains, in the midst of which are several towns. 
The largest of these is Calgary, which has a population 
of about four thousand. 

In Manitoba the climate begins to be more favorable for 
agriculture, and the wheat fields of Minnesota and east- 
ern Dakota continue across the boundary far up into that 
province. Although the winters are long and exceedingly 




Fig. 289. 
A wheat field in Manitoba. 

cold, the summers are warm, so that grain, especially wheat 
(Fig. 289), oats, and barley, may be raised there. Why 
are the summers warm and the winters cold? (p. 72.) 

In the centre of this great wheat region is the city of 
Winnipeg, in which flour is manufactured, as in Minne- 
apolis, and from which much grain is sent eastward by 
rail. This city is situated on the banks of the Red River 
of the North, which empties into Lake Winnipeg. Find 
out from the map (Fig. 275) what other large river is 
tributary to this lake ; also the name of its outlet. 



364 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

Farther east, on the peninsula between Lakes Erie, 
Huron, and Ontario, is found the best farm land in 
Canada. This district is in the province of Ontario, the 
most populous of the Canadian provinces, which includes 
nearly half of all the people in Canada. More than two- 
thirds of the inhabitants live outside of the large cities. 
What large cities do you find there ? 

Although this country is so far north, its climate is so 
modified by the water of the Great Lakes, that such crops 
as grapes, peaches, corn, and even tobacco are raised. In 




Fig. 290. 
A field of flax, one of the products of Canadian farms. For what is flax used ? 

addition, great quantities of oats, wheat, barley, and con- 
siderable flax are grown there. The wheat is made into 
flour, mainly for home consumption ; much of the barley 
is sent to the breweries of the United States ; and the oats 
are fed to stock. Some of the finest horses in America 
are reared in the province of Ontario. This province is 
further noted for the amount of cheese it produces. 

A strip of excellent farming country is found practically 
the entire length of the St. Lawrence River and along the 
southern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Prince Edward 
Island is an island of tine farms ; but the people who live in 
the towns, especially Charlottetown, the capital, are engaged 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE ZfNlTED STATES S65 

in commerce and fishing. Portions of Nova Scotia and New 
Brunswick, particularly along the coast and in the valley of 
the St. John Kiver, are also farming districts. In fact, one 
of the most beautiful farming regions in all of Canada is in 
southwestern Nova Scotia, noted for many crops, but especially 
for delicious apples. It was there that the French settlements 
were made about which Longfellow has written in his Evan- 
geline ; and this is often called " The Land of Evangeline." 

Mining. — Gold and silver are mined in British 
Columbia, as in the Rocky Mountains farther south ; but 
there has been far less development of mining in Canada 
than in the United States. Not only are there gold and 
silver, but also lead and copper ores, building stone, and 
coal. Deposits of coal are found both among the moun- 
tains and in the plains farther east. 

The famous Klondike region is situated among the Canadian 
mountains near the Alaskan boundary. Although so near the 
Arctic Circle, Dawson City in the Klondike has rapidly grown 
to a city with over 10,000 inhabitants. The discovery of gold 
so near the Alaskan boundary, thus causing that section sud- 
denly to become of importance, has given rise to a dispute 
between the United States and Canada as to the exact location 
of the boundary line. 

Gold and silver are found in the province of Ontario, espe- 
cially in the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods. Nickel is 
mined in Ontario, and some oil fields have been developed. 
A small quantity of gold is obtained in Nova Scotia and in 
Newfoundland, where some copper is also mined. 

In spite of the abundance of iron ore in certain places, 
the scarcity of coal near at hand has prevented Canada 
from producing much iron. The coal fields of western 
Canada are quite inaccessible to the eastern cities, and the 
coal beds of the east have never been thoroughly developed. 



366 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



In Nova Scotia, particularly on Cape Breton Island, there 
are extensive beds of bituminous coal of the same origin 
and age as those of Pennsylvania. Since these mines are 
on the very seacoast, and often on the shores of excellent 
harbors, the coal is readily loaded into ships ; but the 
fact that the St. Lawrence is frozen in winter is a great 
disadvantage, not only to the cities along the rivers, but 
also to these coal mines. 




Fig. 291. 

A railway bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal, showing what a very 
broad river it is. Notice how small the long train of cars is when compared 
to the length of the bridge. There is no bridge across this river below 
Montreal. 

Trade Routes and Cities. — There appear to be two out- 
lets for eastern Canada, — one by way of the St. Lawrence, 
the other by the way of Hudson Bay. But the latter is 
practically useless because floating ice so clogs the narrow 
Hudson Strait that vessels are able to pass through it 
during only a few weeks of summer. 

The St. Lawrence River suffers from the same disad- 
vantage, though to a much less extent ; and, in addition 
to the ice, there are dense fogs where the damp air from 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 367 




Fig. 292. 
Map showing the location of Montreal and Quebec. 

the Gulf Stream is chilled in passing over the cold Labra- 
dor current (p. 67). But in spite of these objections, 
the St. Lawrence offers a much better water route than 
that which has so much affected the growth of New York 
(p. 181). However, New York is so near the coal fields, 
and has such a productive territory to draw upon, that it 
has grown far more rapidly than Montreal. 

The exact location of Montreal (Fig. 292), the prin- 
cipal city in Canada, is easily explained. It is on the 
St. Lawrence, at the mouth of the Ottawa River, and just 
below the Lachine Rapids which furnish a complete barrier 
to the passage of boats up stream. However, by entering 



368 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 




the canals mentioned on page 355, river and lake boats 
may go up the St. Lawrence ; bnt ocean vessels must stop 
at Montreal. Thus goods from Europe may be carried to 
Montreal, fully a thousand miles from the ocean ; then, by 

transferring to 
other ships, they 
may be carried 
on canals, rivers, 
and lakes as far 
as Duluth, more 
than twelve hun- 
dred miles far- 
ther inland. By 
this means, and 
by railways also, 
raw products 
from the north, 
east, south, and west collect at Montreal, either to be 
manufactured, or to be shipped farther. 

As in the large cities of the United States, manufactur- 
ing in Montreal is varied, including the making of sugar, 
boots and shoes, cotton and woollen clothing, India rubber 
goods, various steel and iron products, cigars, and multi- 
tudes of other articles. 

Farther down the river is Quebec (Fig. 292), a city 
especially noted on account of its historical associations. 
It was the centre of the French government in Canada, 
and for a long time their principal city. It is situated 
upon a high bluff of the St. Lawrence, and is fortified so 
as to command that river. 

For a long time Quebec was engaged in commerce to a greater 
extent than Montreal ; but the better location of the latter city 



Fig. 293. 

Looking down upon the city of Montreal, with the 
broad St. Lawrence in the distance. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 369 



has drawn the commerce away from Quebec, as the better situa- 
tion of Boston drew the commerce away from Salem (p. 149). 
This has been greatly aided by the building of ship canals and by 
the dredging of the St. Lawrence, thus deepening the channel 
so as to admit great ocean vessels as far as Montreal. 

Quebec is one of the quaintest and most interesting cities 
on the continent. It resembles a bit of the Old World, trans- 
planted to America, and a visitor from the United States feels 
that he is indeed in a foreign country. Besides trading and 
commerce, there 
is some manufac- 
turing in Quebec, 
particularly the 
manufacture of 
boots and shoes. 

Ottawa, an- 
other city of 
great impor- 
tance, is above 
Montreal at 
some large falls 
in the Ottawa 
River. On ac- 
count of its fine FIG - 294 " 

j_ - a, A view in a street in the French quarter of Quebec. 

water power Ot- H 

tawa has much manufacturing, and is especially noted for 
sawmills and other lumber manufactories. More than 
that, being the capital of the Dominion, it has some beau- 
tiful government buildings, known there as the Parlia- 
ment Buildings (Fig. 295). 

The second city in size in Canada is Toronto, located 
on an excellent harbor on the shores of Lake Ontario. 
Being situated in the midst of a fertile farming country, 

2 B 




370 OTHER COZTN TRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 295. 
The Parliament buildings, Ottawa. 

and having water connection with, coal on the east, and 
lumber and other raw products on the west, Toronto has 
become a manufacturing centre. Yet, in spite of this, 
the inhabitants have paid great attention to keeping the 
city beautiful, and it is one of the most attractive cities 
on the continent. 

A number of smaller cities are located along this water 
route. Port Arthur, which in position corresponds to Du- 
luth in the United States, is a shipping point for grain, cattle, 
and other western products. Windsor (Fig. 209), opposite 
Detroit, shares some of the advantages of that city, being a 
shipping point and a manufacturing centre. Not far from 
Toronto, on the extreme western end of Lake Ontario, is 
Hamilton, a manufacturing and trade centre ; and there are 
other cities on the same peninsula, the largest being London. 

On the eastern end of Lake Ontario, near the Thousand 
Islands, is Kingston, which has cotton and woollen mills, car 
shops and locomotive works, besides being a lake port and 
railway centre. As in New England and New York, nearly 
all the towns and cities of this part of Canada are engaged 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 371 

in manufacturing of one kind or another. Generally, in the 
first place, the presence of water power attracted sawmills, 
as in the case of Peteeboro, Ontario. Then, since the power 
continued after the forests were removed from the neighbor- 
hood, other manufactures were undertaken. This has been 
the history of great numbers of towns and cities of southern 
Canada and northeastern United States. 

Railways have been of great importance in Canada, as 
in the United States. The greatest railway is the Cana- 
dian Pacific, which reaches from St. John, New Bruns- 
wick, where there is a good harbor, entirely across Canada 
to Vancouver on the Pacific coast. It is the shortest 
route from England to China and Japan, and much freight 
is sent that way. Across the strait, on the island of Van- 
couver, is the city of Victoria. With what two cities 
on Puget Sound may these be compared ? How do they 
compare in size? (See table, p. 448.) 

One of the oldest cities in Canada, and one that has 
an excellent harbor, is Halifax in Nova Scotia, which 
is about the size of Mobile in the United States. Not- 
withstanding its fine harbor and great age, this city has 
never become large. The reason is easily seen on examin- 
ing the map (Fig. 275). There is almost no country back 
of it upon which it can draw to aid its growth. The 
narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia is not large enough to 
supply raw materials and manufactured articles in suffi- 
cient quantity to make it a great shipping point, and the 
country farther west is too difficult to reach. It is very 
much easier to send western goods to Montreal for ship- 
ment than to carry them so far as Halifax. Here, almost 
as well as in the case of New York and Montreal, we see 
why certain cities flourish or fail to flourish. 



372 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



Islands North of North America 

These cold and barren islands have almost no inhabit- 
ants. Scattered colonies of Eskimos are living along 
the coast (Figs. 24, 79, and 296), many of them in almost 
as primitive a manner as when the continent was dis- 
covered. 

These people have adapted themselves to life in the 
Arctic region in a way that is truly remarkable (p. 92). 




Fig. 296. 
A Greenland Eskimo kayak. 

They have no wood excepting the occasional pieces which 
drift to their shores ; they lack vegetable food, excepting 
the few berries that are found in summer ; and the land 
supplies them with almost nothing beyond a few birds 
and the caribou ; yet they are able to exist, notwith- 
standing the terrible cold of the long, dark winter. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 373 

Through the summer the Eskimos travel about from place 
to place, pitching skin tents, or tuples, at points where seal are 
liable to be found. In order to obtain these they must venture 
upon the water in their kayaks (Fig. 296). These boats are made 
of the skins of sea animals stretched around pointed frames, 
made either of driftwood or of bone. In form the kayak re- 
sembles the Indian canoe, although it is even more easily upset. 

The Eskimo handles his kayak very skilfully by means of a 
two-bladed paddle, which he dips into the water, first on one 
side of the boat, then on the other. On the top of the boat 
he rests his spears of different sizes, one for spearing fish, one 
for birds, and one for seals. 

When the summer is over these people build more perma- 
nent homes, either of stone or snow or ice, the only building 
materials available (Fig. 79). Food is not abundant enough 
for them to lay up a supply for winter, and therefore they 
must hunt through the long winter night. At that time, in 
the search for seals, the men venture out over the ice-covered 
sea in sledges, drawn by dogs. Occasionally they come across 
a polar bear on a similar errand, when a battle ensues, in which 
the Eskimo is not always the victor. 

From the seal, polar bear, walrus, and caribou the Eski- 
mos obtain not only their food, but furs for their clothing, 
skins for their tupics, and. blubber for their light and fuel. 
In fact, excepting for the stones and snow used in their 
winter homes, or igloos (Fig. 79), and occasional pieces of 
driftwood, they are dependent entirely upon animals for 
everything they use. 

They are a happy and intelligent people. The latter 
fact is proved by the kinds of boats, sledges, and homes 
that they have invented, and also by the fact that they 
are able to live at all amid such surroundings. Their 
struggle for existence is probably greater than that of 
any other race. 



374 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

The)' seem to have migrated to these islands from the 
west ; and in their migration they have reached as far 
eastward as the east coast of Greenland. Large numbers 
dwell on the west coast of this immense island, which for 
a long time has been under the control of the Danish gov- 
ernment. As a result of their contact with Europeans, 
the Greenland Eskimos have naturally given up many of 
their customs. They no longer build snow and ice igloos 




Fig. 297. 
A group of Eskimo children in Greenland. 

in winter, but have permanent homes, usually made of 
turf and stone (Fig. 299), though in many cases of wood. 
The Danes have attempted to civilize these people and 
convert them to Christianity, and have supplied them with 
churches and schools. 

From this region the Danes obtain supplies of blubber from 
the seal and walrus, ivory from the walrus, skins from the 
seal, reindeer, and polar bear, and eider-down from the eider- 
duck. In return for these products they supply European 
food, which the Eskimos have learned to like. The Greenland 



COUNTRIES NOBTH OF THE UNITED STATES 375 



Eskimos have gathered around the Danish trading stations, 
forming small towns. The most northern of these is Uper- 
navik, where white men live farther north than any others in 
the world. But some uncivilized Eskimos have homes still 
farther north. 

Away from the coast the greater part of Greenland is a 
barren waste of ice and snow — the most absolute desert 
known in the 
world. Its area 
is about five hun- 
dred thousand 
square miles, or 
more than ten 
times as large as 
New York State. 
Throughout this 
entire area there 
is no living thing, 
not even the low- 
est plant or ani- 
mal. Both Peary 
and Nansen have 
crossed this waste 
of ice, which 
reaches an eleva- 
tion of over ten 
thousand feet 
above sea-level. In the higher portion, even in the mid- 
dle of summer, the temperature remains below zero, and 
rain never falls. On this great highland the snow has 
accumulated to such a depth that, being changed to ice, it 
flows out as a glacier in all directions to the sea (p. 13). 




Fig. 298. 

A Greenland Eskimo mother and her two children, 
one carried in the hood of sealskin on her back. 



376 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 




As it adv.ances into the sea (Fig. 11) fragments are 
constantly dropping from it, and as it pushes out into the 
deeper water great masses are broken off, forming ice- 
bergs (Figs. 12 and 
61). The breaking 
away of a large ice- 
berg is a wonderful 
sight, and, if one is 
too near, a dangerous 
experience. As it 
breaks loose, it fills 
the air with a multi- 
tude of reports resem- 
bling the discharge 
of many large guns ; 
the sea is churned to 
foam, and the spray 
is dashed high in the 
air. Then it floats 
majestically away, like a small, white island, until, in a 
warmer climate, it melts and returns its waters to the sea, 
whence it came as vapor perhaps centuries before. 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Tell about the French in 
Canada. (2) What provinces constitute the Dominion of Canada? 
Locate each. (3) What about Newfoundland? (4) Where do the 
majority of Canadians live? Why there? (5) Compare southern 
Canada with the United States in physiography and climate. 
(6) Where is some of the grandest scenery? (7) The best farm 
land? (8) Name and locate the principal rivers. (9) What is the 
principal water route? (10) Mention some of the difficulties of ship- 
ping by that route. (11) Describe the climate, physiography, and 
vegetable life in northern Canada. (12) In regard to lumbering, tell 
about the extent of forest ; kinds of trees ; and cities most noted for 
lumber. (13) What provinces in the east are especially engaged in 



Fig. 299. 

A part of an Eskimo town, showing the Dan- 
ish buildings ; and also, in the foreground, 
some Eskimo huts made of turf and stone. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 377 

fishing? (14) Name the important fishing ports. (15) Tell about 
the fish ; about the salmon of the western coast. (16) Compare seal- 
ing in- Alaska with that on the coast of Labrador. What use is made 
of the animals in each case ? (17) Compare the agricultural products 
of Washington with those of British Columbia. Why so similar? 
(18) What is the principal occupation in Canada just north of Mon- 
tana? Why? (19) Tell about the province of Manitoba. (2.0) Which 
is the most populous province in Canada? Why? (21) Where is 
" The Land of Evangeline " ? (22) What mineral products are found 
in Canada? (23) Locate the chief mining regions. (24) Where are 
the leading coal mines? (25) Why is Hudson Bay not an important 
outlet for Canada ? (26) How does the water route from the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence to Port Arthur compare with that from New York Bay 
toDuluth? Name particularly the advantages of each. (27) Give 
the reasons for the location of Montreal. (28) Mention the leading 
industries of that city. (29) Tell about Quebec. (30) About Ottawa. 
(31) About Toronto. (32) About each of the other cities mentioned. 
(33) Why is Halifax not a great city? 

(34) What advantages do the Eskimos lack that we enjoy in abun- 
dance? (35) What substitutes do they find for them? (36) Tell about 
the habits of the Eskimos in summer and in winter. (37) How have 
the Danes influenced the Eskimos who live in Greenland? (38) De- 
scribe the interior of Greenland. (39) Tell about icebergs. 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the area of Canada with that of the 
United States (see table, p. 447). (2) The population also (see table, 
p. 447). (3) Find a picture of a salmon. (4) Collect pictures of 
different kinds of trees in Canada. (5) Tell the story of " Evange- 
line." (6) Lake Ontario is how much higher than Lake Erie ? How 
are ships able to pass from one lake to the other ? (7) Explain why 
Montreal has outgrown Quebec. (8) Why should Buffalo grow more 
rapidly than Toronto ? (9) Write a story describing the pleasures of 
the Eskimos. (10) Collect pictures of Eskimos. (11) Find some 
one who has been iri Canada, and have him tell you what he has 
seen there. (12) Find out more about the government of Canada. 
(13) Of what advantage is it to England to have such a large, pro- 
ductive colony ? 

For References, see page 442. 



XV. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

Map Questions : Mexico. — (1) Describe the relief of Mexico. 
(2) Name the two large peninsulas. (3) What river forms a part of 
the northern boundary ? (4) What waters border Mexico ? (5) Find 
the capital. (6) Find the largest seaport. (7) Compare the coast 
line with that of northeastern United States. 

Central America. — (8) Name the countries. (0) What sea lies to 
the east? (10) What large lake do you find? (11) Examine the 
small map of the Nicaragua Canal. Describe the route proposed. 
Of what advantage is the lake ? 

West Indies. — (See map, Fig. 260, facing p. 331.) (12) Which is 
the largest island ? (13) Name three others in order of their size. 

(14) What island lies south of Cuba? What is its capital? 

(15) What group of islands lies north of Cuba? To what nation do 
these islands belong? (16) What other nations own islands in the 
West Indies ? (17) On the map, Figure 95, find the Bermuda Islands. 

Mexico 

Physiography and Climate. — Mexico consists of four 
areas of different altitudes. Near the seacoast are coastal 
plains and other lowlands. In the interior, occupying a 
large part of the country, is an arid plateau. The third 
area includes the slopes between these two, and the fourth 
consists of peaks and mountain ranges which are a con- 
tinuation of those in southern United States. Among 
the mountains, as in United States, there are a number 
of volcanic cones, two of them, Orizaba and Popocatepetl, 
being among the highest peaks on the continent. 

378 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 379 

This part of North America is narrow, and since the 
north and south divide causes some of the streams to flow 
eastward and the others westward, there can be no long 
rivers in Mexico. The steep slope from the plateau to 
the lowland gives the streams a rapid fall, so that they 
have cut deep canyons in the edge of the plateau. More- 
over, the arid climate of the interior allows them little 
water. This lack of large, navigable rivers has interfered 
with the development of Mexico. Can you tell why ? 



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Fig. 301. 
A scene on the arid plateau of Mexico. A road bordered by cactus. 

As in the case of our Southern States, the land has been 
rising instead of sinking. Therefore the coast is regular 
and there are few good harbors. Two projections form 
the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, the for- 
mer being a continuation of the mountain chain which 
made Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico. The latter is a south- 
ern extension of the Coast Ranges of the United States. 

If the surface of Mexico were near the sea-level, the 
climate of the greater portion would be tropical ; but 
owing to the differences in altitude, there are several dif- 



380 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

ferent climates. The low coastal plains, near Vera Cruz 
and in Yucatan, are hot and damp, being reached by the 
trade winds and monsoons which blow across the Gulf 
of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. There is also considerable 
rain upon the cooler plateau slopes of eastern Mexico ; but 
with the exception of these regions, the greater part of 
Mexico has too little rainfall for agriculture without irri- 
gation. The northern part of Mexico is in the horse lati- 
tudes, the remainder in the trade wind belt. How does 
this explain the aridity ? (See pp. 47 and 49.) 

History. — After Columbus discovered the West Indies, 
the neighboring coast was visited and settled, and thus 
Mexico naturally came into possession of the Spaniards. 
One of the boldest of the Spanish invaders was Cortez, 
who conquered the Aztec and Pueblo Indians as far north 
as northern New Mexico. 

Spain found so much gold and silver in Mexico that 
many Spaniards settled there. They developed the mines, 
started coffee plantations on the temperate slopes, estab- 
lished farms on the plateau where irrigation was possible, 
and carried on cattle ranching in the more arid portions. 
After their settlement the intermarriage of Spanish and 
Indians caused the population to become very much mixed ; 
and there are now in Mexico not only savage Indians and 
semicivilized Aztecs, but many half-breeds, besides some 
pure-blooded Spaniards. 

Spain governed Mexico so badly that the people rebelled, 
and in 1821 won their independence, establishing a republic 
with a government modelled after our own. There are a 
number of states, each with a government and capital, 
someAvhat as in each of our states, and a central govern- 
ment with the capital at Mexico City, where the Presi- 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 381 

dent lives. For a long time Mexico also included the 
states of Texas and Colorado and the country west of 
them to the Pacific. Texas won its independence by war 
and joined the Union; and in the Mexican war the United 
States obtained the territory marked " ceded by Mexico, 
1848," in Figure 357. 

Agriculture and Ranching. — Although the climate of a 
large part of Mexico is arid, much agriculture is carried 
on by the aid of irrigation, which is made possible by 




Fig. 302. 
A Mexican ploughing with a wooden plough. 

reason of the snow and rain among the mountains. 
On the irrigated farms the products of the temperate 
zone are raised, such as wheat, corn, and beans — the 
latter being one of the staple products of the Mexican 
diet. Much fruit is also produced, especially apples, 
pears, peaches, and grapes. 

The Mexican farming methods, which are very crude, are 
a mixture of ancient Aztec customs and those introduced from 
Spain. In Mexico one may still see the wooden plough (Fig. 
302), which barely scrapes the ground, and also the wooden- 
wheeled cart, drawn by oxen (Fig. 85). 



382 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

The home life of the people is interesting. Their houses have 
but one story and are commonly built of a brick made of clay 
mixed with straw, and then dried in the sun (Fig. 303). These 
sun-dried bricks, or adobes, are larger than the bricks that we 
use, and are piled tier upon tier, being joined by layers of mud. 
Often there is but one room, the ceiling being made of brush, 
and the floor of nothing but the earth. In this one room the 
whole family cooks, eats, and sleeps. Their food usually con- 
sists of very simple materials, such as unraised bread, baked in 
the fireplace, beans, and occasionally meat, commonly cooked 
with red pepper. Men, women, and children use tobacco. 




Fig. 303. 
Aii adobe house in Mexico. 

While this description is true for the poorer classes, it of 
course does not apply to the wealthier class of Mexicans. 
Nevertheless even these have the same kind of architecture, 
which resembles that of southern Spain (Fig. 309), introduced 
into the latter country by the Moors many centuries ago. 

Upon the arid plateaus, the plants resemble those in 
western United States (p. 81), and among them are found 
the sage bush, the mesquite, and the cactus (Figs. 45, 
69, and 70). One among them, known as the maguey, 
or agave (Fig. 304), is very widely used in Mexico. Its 
stout, sharp-pointed leaves rise from near the ground in 
a tuft. In the centre of this rests the flower stalk, which 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 383 

sometimes reaches a height of forty feet, and bears a 
cluster of white flowers on the top. * It is also called the 
century plant, because it 
requires so long to reach 
maturity and produce 
this flower stalk. How- 
ever, one hundred years 
are not necessary for that 
purpose, but from ten to 
seventy years, according 
to the climate. From the 
fermented juice of this 
plant the Mexicans obtain 
an alcoholic drink known 
as mescal, and by distil- 
ling it, a drink known as 
pulque. The tough leaves contain a fibre which is made 
into paper and strong thread. So valuable is the maguey 
that it is carefully cultivated upon plantations (Fig. 305). 




Fig. 304. 
The maguey. 




Fig. 305. 
A field of maguey plants. 



384 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 306. 
The cochineal cactus. 



On one species of cactus (Fig. 306) in Mexico and Central 
America live tiny insects known as the cochineal insects. The 
insects are collected, killed by means of heat, and then dried 

. in the sun, when they resemble 

•Y^fiS&ii&i' \ small berries of a purplish color. 

They are used in the manufacture 
of red and carmine dyes, which 
are of great value. 

As in western United States, 
large parts of these arid pla- 
teaus cannot be reached by irri- 
gating ditches. Such parts are 
valuable for cattle and sheep 
ranches. Horses and goats are 
also raised, but neither horses nor mules are used so much 
in Mexico as in the United States. The most common 
draft animal is the little jackass, or bwro, sometimes as 
small as a Shetland pony. It is a patient creature, with 
great endurance, and capable of carrying heavy loads. 
It is especially useful among the mountains because it is 
so sure-footed. Not uncommonly one sees several burros 
loaded down with wood to such an extent that their long 
ears and short legs are the principal parts in sight. 

On the damp lowlands, rice, sugar-cane, and cotton are 
produced ; also tropical fruits, such as oranges, bananas, 
and pineapples, quantities of which are exported from 
southeastern Mexico. Upon the slopes between the 
tropical lowlands and the temperate plateau, considerable 
tobacco and coffee are raised. 

The latter requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, a warm 
climate, and plenty of shade. In order to secure shade, the 
coffee bush, which reaches a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 385 




Fig. 307. 

A coffee bush in the shade of a tree whose trunk is seen 
on the right. 



planted in the 
shade of higher- 
trees. A white 
blossom ap- 
pears as early 
as March, and 
after the flower 
falls off the 
coffee berry be- 
gins to grow. 
It resembles a 
dark red cran- 
berry. On the 
outside is a 
husk enclosing 
two kernels 
that fit with 
the flat sides 
together ; and 

in order to prepare the coffee for the market the outside husk 
must first be removed. This is sometimes done by the Mexicans 
in a very crude way ; but on the larger plantations, machinery 

is employed. 

Southern Mexico. — In 
southern Mexico, near Cen- 
tral America, there are dense 
tropical forests from which 
are obtained many valuable 
woods, such as mahogany, 
rosewood, and logwood. Else- 
where in that country forests 
are rare, excepting upon the 
higher mountains. In fact, 
there is so little forest land 
that the Mexicans living on 
Fig. 308. the arid plateau find difficulty 

The coffee berry. in obtaining wood for fuel. 

2 c 




386 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

Much of this is dug from the ground ; for some of the arid-land 
bushes, notably the mesquite, have long, thick roots which 
make excellent firewood. 

Besides the valuable woods of the tropical forests, southern 
Mexico produces the vanilla bean, which grows upon a climbing 
plant. In the seed-pod are nestled the very fragrant beans 
which are used for flavoring extracts, for perfumeries, and for 
medicine. Pepper, made from the dried berry of a tropical 
plant, is also obtained in Mexico. Indigo, useful as a dye, is 
likewise obtained from a berry in this region, and sarsaparilla 
from the roots of a tropical plant. 

The Mines. — One of the principal objects that the 
Spaniards had in exploring the New World was to obtain 
the precious metals, gold and silver ; and both in Mexico 
and South America they were rewarded in their search 
by the discovery of very rich mines, some of them having 
been previously worked by the Indians. Mexico is still 
a great mining country, producing almost as much silver 
as the United States, and being the second silver-produc- 
ing nation in the world. There are also some mines of 
copper and lead. 

Many of the mines are now operated by Europeans and 
Americans, so that modern methods have been introduced ; 
but in some of those managed by Mexicans, primitive 
methods, similar to those used by the Indians, are still 
employed. Large areas have never been carefully ex- 
amined for ore. In fact, some parts of the country are 
still occupied by Indian tribes, who not only prevent 
miners from coming in, but even defy the government. 

There are immense deposits of iron in Mexico, but they 
are not worked, chiefly because of the absence of coal. Among 
the mountains and plateaus are found many valuable building 
and ornamental stones, such as marble, but these also are 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 387 

scarcely worked at all. In one section there is onyx, so much 
prized in making clocks, vases, lamps, and table tops; and 
opals of great beauty occur in some of the lavas that have 
poured forth from the volcanoes. They are so common that 
one is able to buy a beautiful opal for a few cents. 

The Cities. — While great numbers of Mexicans are 
engaged in farming and ranching, and are therefore 
scattered over the country, they have, wherever possible, 




Fig. 309. 
The Mexican city of Leon. 

gathered together in villages and small towns. These 
communities are often necessary in order to obtain the 
water supply needed for irrigation. It is usually -too 
great a task for a single farmer to build a ditch ; and 
therefore a number combine and thus live close together. 
In a few places, too, there are large cities, the greatest 
being Mexico City, with a population of about 350,000. 
In this city, as in numerous other places in Mexico, there 
are many fine buildings, especially cathedrals ; for the 



388 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



Mexicans, like Spaniards in other parts of the world, are 
chief!}' Roman Catholics. 

Another city in the interior is Puebla, founded in 
1531, and now having a population about equal to that of 
Cambridge, Mass. It is situated near one of the ancient 
cities, or pueblos, of the Aztecs. San Luis Potosi is as 
large as Peoria, 111., and there are a number of other cities 
with a population of fifty thousand and over. 

Since the eastern coast 
of Mexico is low and 
sandy, it has no good 
harbors, the two largest 
cities on the seacoast be- 
ing Tampico and Vera 
Cruz, whose harbors are 
protected by breakwaters. 
There are good harbors 
on the western coast, as 
that at Acapulco ; but 
since it is backed by high 
mountains and a worth- 
less country, that port 
has never become impor- 
tant. 




Fig. 310. 

A view in Guadalajara, showing the typi- 
cal one-story Mexican houses made of 
adobe. 



Many of the Mexicans are very ignorant, for the schools 
are not so well developed as in the United States, Another 
reason why little progress has been made is that the poorer 
people have been kept down by the wealthier Spaniards. While 
slavery is not permitted, a system that amounts to almost the 
same thing is in vogue. Large numbers, known as peons, are 
in the employ and uuder the control of wealthy Spaniards, who 
keep them in debt, and who, therefore, practically own them. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 389 



Because of the ignorance of the working class, and the 
absence of water power and coal, there is very little manufac- 
turing in Mexico; and that which is done is largely carried on 
by hand. However, even the uneducated Mexicans are quite 
artistic, and are able to do 
some beautiful kinds of 
hand-work. They weave 
silver and gold threads into 
what is known as filigree 
jewelry, which is often of 
great beauty. The women 
and girls, by drawing 
threads from pieces of linen 
so as to make delicate pat- 
terns, produce the Mexican 
drawn-work that is so much 
prized in this country. 

Besides this hand-work on a small scale, there are large 
tobacco factories in the tobacco district. Some earthenware is 
also manufactured, and some cotton cloth ; but there are no 
manufacturing towns, no great watch and shoe factories, and 
no immense blast furnaces, such as we find in the New Eng- 
land, Middle Atlantic, and Central States. 











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Fig. 311, 
Making Mexican drawn work. 



Central America 

The Republics. — South of Mexico are five small nations, 
known as the Republics of Central America, each of which 
has a government modelled after that of the United States. 
They are, however, not good examples of republics, chiefly 
because of the ignorance of the people. An ambitious 
general, obtaining a few followers, is liable at any time to 
start a revolution and overturn the existing government. 
There is an almost constant state of turmoil in these nations ; 
war after war has occurred ; presidents have been deposed 



390 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



or murdered ; and such a state of unrest has existed that 
there has been little chance for development. Their politi- 
cal condition resembles that of the country in which they 
live, which is subject to disastrous eruptions of volcanoes, 
and to earthquakes of great destructiveness. They truly 

live in the midst of a 
state of unrest. 

The earthquake shocks 
have levelled towns and 
killed thousands of peo- 
ple. For instance, San 
Salvador, the capital 
of the country by that 
name, was so frequently 
destroyedby earthquakes 
that the inhabitants de- 
cided to choose a new 
location for their city ; 
but the one they selected 
is hardly better than the 
one they abandoned. 

Most of Central 
America is mountain- 
ous ; and, being in the 
tropical zone, the cli- 
mate is hot. It is also exceedingly damp, the trade winds 
causing the rainfall on the eastern coast to be especially 
heavy. It is so rainy that there are dense jungles along 
the shores of the Caribbean Sea. 

Of the five countries forming the Central American 
group, the smallest is San Salvador, the next, Costa Rica. 
Nicaragua, Honduras, and Guatemala are about equal in 
size. In addition to these, just south of Yucatan, is British 




Fig. 312. 
Picking bananas in Guatemala. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 391 



Honduras (or Belize). The largest city in the group is 
New Guatemala, the capital of Guatemala, having 
a population of over seventy thousand. Like San Sal- 
vador, the inhabitants have been forced to change its 
location, which was formerly at the base of two very active 
volcanoes ; hence the name, New Guatemala. 

A large portion of these countries is occupied by dense 
tropical forests from which are obtained mahogany, rose- 
wood, logwood, fustic, and other valuable cabinet and dye 
woods. The rubber tree also grows there, and the pro- 
duction of rubber is 
one of the indus- 
tries of the region. 

As in Mexico, cof- 
fee is raised on the 
hill slopes in the 
shade of the forest 
trees. One of the 
most important dis- 
tricts for this indus- 
try is Costa Rica. 
Bananas (Figs. 312, 
313), sugar, tobacco, 
indigo, and cocoa 
are other products 
of Central America. 

Some gold and silver are obtained, the former near 
Blueflelds, the latter in Honduras. The inhabitants are 
mainly Indians, Spaniards, or half-breeds ; and owing to 
the uneducated and even uncivilized condition of the 
great majority, there is practically no manufacturing car- 
ried on in these countries. 




Fig. 313. 
Loading a train with bananas in Costa Rica. 



392 



OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 



The Nicaragua Canal. — To us one of the principal points 
of interest connected with this region is the building of 
canals across the narrow strip of land which separates the 
Atlantic from the Pacific. One canal has already been 
started between the towns of Colon and Panama on the 
Isthmus of Panama. The distance is only about fifty 
miles, and the elevation but three hundred feet at the 
highest point. This, the Panama Canal, has been espe- 
cially supported by the French. 




Fig. 314. 
Natives sorting coffee in Costa Rica. 

A second route favored for a canal, and one that finds 
favor in the United States, is the Nicaragua route, which 
is much longer, but passes over an elevation only about 
half as great as the Panama Canal. Moreover, a large 
part of the distance is occupied by a river and by Lake 
Nicaragua (Fig. 300), the largest lake in North America 
south of the United States. This lake is about ninety- 
two miles long and empties into the Caribbean Sea through 
the San Juan River. 

Either of the canals would be of great service to the 
seacoast cities of North America and Europe. By such 



COUNTBIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 393 



a canal a steamer 
going from Lon- 
don to San Fran- 
cisco would save 
five thousand 
miles, while eight 
thousand miles 
would be saved 
between New 
York and San 
Francisco. Ex- 
amine a globe to 
see why more 
would be saved 
in the latter case, 




Fig. 315. 
Loading bananas on a ship in Honduras. 



The West Indies 

(Map, Fig. 260, opposite p. 331.) 

From the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas a chain of 
islands reaches to the mouth of the Orinoco on the South 
American coast. These enclose the Caribbean Sea ; and, 
with the aid of the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, the 
Gulf of Mexico also. Because of the mistake made by 
Columbus, these islands are to this day called the West 
Indies. They are often known as the Antilles. 

With the exception of the northern portion of the 
Bahamas, this entire archipelago lies within the tropics, 
and therefore has a warm climate ; and, since all of 
the islands are reached by trade winds from the sea, the 
climate is clamp. There are many scores of islands in the 
group, only a few of which are large. Two of these, 



394 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

Cuba and Porto Rico, have already been described (pp. 
330 to 336). To whom do they belong? What else can 
you tell about them? 

Jamaica. — South of Cuba lies the Island of Jamaica, 
the third in size in the West Indies, and a possession of 
Great Britain. Its capital is Kingston, a city nearly as 
large as Tacoma, Wash. This island is mountainous in 
the centre, but has an excellent soil on the lower slopes and 
in the valleys, and is very productive. The inhabitants 
are mainly negroes or mulattoes, there being fully forty 
negroes to one white person. Many of them are exceed- 




Fig. 316. 
A grass house on a tobacco plantation in Jamaica. 

ingly lazy, and work only when obliged to do so. The 
women do outdoor work fully as much as the men, and it 
is no uncommon sight to see them working, not only in 
the sugar-cane fields, as in the United States, but even 
carrying loads of coal or bananas into the ships. 

The occupation of the Jamaicans is chiefly agriculture. 
One of the main products is sugar-cane, which is made 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



395 



into sugar, molasses, and rum. Early vegetables and fruits, 
such as oranges and bananas, are also raised. Jamaica 
ginger, of which every one has heard, is obtained from 
the root of a plant that grows in this island. 

Haiti. —The island of Haiti, just east of Cuba, and sec- 
ond in size among the West Indies, is occupied by two 




Fig. 317. 
A field of sugar-cane in the West Indies (St. Croix). 

negro republics, Haiti and Santo Domingo. The capital 
of the former is Poet ait Prince; and of the latter, 
Santo Domingo. 

It is a very mountainous island, having one peak which 
reaches more than ten thousand feet above sea-level. A large 
portion of the land is still covered with forest containing 
mahogany, logwood, and other valuable tropical woods. 
Many of the natives obtain their living in the most primi- 
tive fashion, like the negroes of Africa; but others, 
especially near the seacoast, are engaged in raising sugar, 



396 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

tobacco, coffee, and bananas. They rarely produce, how- 
ever, more than enough for their own needs. 

This was the first large island discovered by Columbus in 
1492, and here he made settlements and opened mines. A 
cathedral which was partially built in 1512 is still standing in 









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Fig. 318. 
A group of negro natives in the West Indies (Barbadoes) . 

Santo Domingo. In those early times Indian natives were 
seized as slaves and obliged to work in the mines, and after 
much cruel treatment were finally exterminated. Negro slaves 
were brought from Africa, and the descendants of these are 
the present rulers of the two republics. 

For a while Spain developed Haiti, and even opened mines 
which showed that there is much mineral wealth among the 
mountains. The later history of the island has been complex ; 
it was ceded to France, then won its independence. After that 
Spain twice conquered the eastern end of the island and was 
twice driven out. In these wars the natives were aided by the 
mountainous nature of the country ; for small bands could live 
among the mountains out of reach of their oppressors, and yet 
near enough to cause them constant trouble. 

The experiment of black republics has not been very sue- 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 397 

cessful, although the governments in Santo Domingo and 
Haiti are no worse than those in Central America. Freed 
from the restraint of foreign control, many of the natives have 
gone back to savage customs ; and in the interior of Haiti are 
found many habits and religious beliefs that now exist in the 
wilds of Central Africa. 

Lesser Antilles. — Most of the islands among the Lesser 
Antilles are possessions of Great Britain, though some 




Fig. 310. 
A tropical scene in the West Indies (St. Croix). 

belong to other nations. For instance, Martinique and 
Guadeloupe belong to France ; St. Thomas and St. Croix 
to Denmark ; and others to Holland. Many of these small 
islands are volcanic cones, built upon the crest of a rnoun- 



398 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

tain ridge which is mainly beneath the sea (Fig. 1). 
Most of the volcanoes now appear to be extinct, though 
in 1797 and 1843, in Guadeloupe, and in 1812, in St. 
Vincent, there were volcanic outbursts. Hot water and 
steam still rise from the craters in other islands, showing 
that the volcanic fires have not altogether died out. 

The products of these islands are similar to those of 
Jamaica, Cuba, and Porto Rico (pp. 331-333). As 
throughout the West Indies, the most important of all 
is the sugar-cane. However, the increased use of beet 
sugar in Europe has taken away one of the principal 
markets for the sugar of these islands. 

The Bahamas. — North of Haiti and Cuba are several 
hundred small islands, called the Bahamas. A number of 
these are inhabited, and on one is situated the city of 
Nassau. These islands have been built by coral polyps. 
In the warm waters of the Gulf Stream (p. 71), which 
sweeps over the shallow bank on which the islands lie, these 
minute sea animals have built reefs. Waves have washed 
the dead coral fragments together, forming bars and 
beaches, and the wind has blown the coral sand into low 
sand-dune hills. In this way the islands have been made. 

Sponges are obtained from the clear warm waters of the 
Bahama banks. To obtain them, the natives either cruise 
about in boats, dragging the bottom, or they strip off their 
clothes and dive into the clear water, tearing the sponge from 
the bottom to which it is clinging. 

The sponge is made by colonies of tiny animals, which to- 
gether build a horny substance, much as coral polyps build 
coral. When brought to the surface the sponge little resem- 
bles those that we use, for animal matter fills the pores and 
spreads over the surface. This must be removed before the 
sponge is ready for market. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 399 

From the land, early vegetables, pineapples, oranges, and 
cocoanuts are raised by the inhabitants, who are chiefly ne- 
groes. One of the industries on these islands is caring for 
winter visitors. Why should people wish to go there? 

The Bermudas 

Far out in the Atlantic, alone in mid ocean, and 600 
miles east of the Carolinas, is a cluster of small islands, 
known as the Bermudas, the largest being only 15 miles 




Fig. 320. 

A view from one of the coral sand hills, showing some of the tiny islands of 
the Bermuda group. 

long by one or two miles in width. Their foundation is a 
volcanic cone covered by the water of the sea. The top 
of this cone is veneered with a layer of coral remains. As 
in the Bahamas, coral polyps are still busily engaged in 
building reefs, the waves are washing the coral frag- 
ments upon the beach and grinding them to coral sand, 
and the wind is slowly drifting this about, forming dunes. 
Being in the open ocean, and surrounded by warm cur- 
rents, the Bermudas have a delightful and equable climate. 
In midwinter, when people in the same latitude in the 



400 OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 

United States are shivering with cold, those in Bermuda 
are able to sit out of doors late at night. 

This group of islands, which belongs to Great Britain, 
is inhabited mainly by negroes and mulattoes, who are 
engaged in raising early vegetables, especially potatoes 
and onions, for the American market. Another impor- 
tant product is the Easter lily, great fields of which 
are raised for the Easter season. At a time when few 
plants are in blossom in the Northern States, one may 
see acres of the beautiful Easter lilies in Bermuda, while 
birds are singing joyfully and everything indicates 
summer. 

It is natural that many persons from the United States 
should be attracted to such a climate every winter. The 
majority of these visitors stay in the largest city, Hamil- 
ton, where, aside from the climate, the scenery is enjoy- 
able in the extreme. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Mexico : Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of Mexico. 
(2) "Why are there few good harbors? (3) Tell about the tempera- 
ture and rainfall in the different parts. (4) Give the history of 
Mexico: — the early settlement; the industries developed; the present 
government; the loss of territory. (5) Mention the leading products 
from the irrigated farms. (6) Tell about the methods of farming. 
(7) About the home life. (S) Xame some of the plants on the arid 
plateaus ; what products are obtained from them? (9) What are the 
chief products on the damp lowlands? (10) On the slopes farther 
inland? (11) Tell about coffee raising. (12) In what part of the 
country are the forests ? (13) Xame the valuable woods. (14) Name 
the products of southern Mexico. (15) Tell about the mining of 
precious metals. (16) "What other mineral products are obtained? 
(17) Locate the principal cities in the interior. (18) On the coast. 
(19) Tell about the condition of the people. (20) "Why is there little 
manufacturing? (21) What kinds are there ? 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 401 

Suggestions. — (22) On Figure 65 notice how the plant zones 
are affected by the different altitudes in Mexico. (23) Find out why 
coffee raising requires special care. (24) Find an article of furniture 
made of mahogany. (25) Walk toward Mexico City. (26) What 
reason can you discover for its location? (27) Examine a piece of 
Mexican drawn work. (28) Compared with water routes, are rail- 
ways more or less important in Mexico than in United States? Why? 
(29) Collect pictures of Mexican scenes. (30) Find some one who 
has been in Mexico, and have him tell you about it. (31) Who is 
the President of Mexico ? (32) Make a sketch map of Mexico. 

Central America : Questions. — (33) Name the five nations in 
Central America. (34) To whom does Belize belong? (35) What 
about the earthquakes in Central America ? (36) Describe the climate. 
(37) Locate some of the cities. (38) What products of Mexico are 
also found in Central America? (39) On the map locate the canal 
that has been begun across the Isthmus of Panama. (40) Where is 
it proposed to start another? Give reasons in favor of each. 

Suggestions. — (41) What disadvantages do you see in the lack of 
a central government for all the Central American republics? (42) In 
what other ways besides saving coal would a canal there prove of 
advantage ? Let a committee be appointed from your class to obtain 
definite facts about the matter by writing to some ship company. 

(43) Why would harbors at each end of the canal be necessary? 

(44) Make a sketch of Central America. 

The West Indies : Questions. — (45) Into what groups are the 
islands divided? (46) Tell about their climate. (47) What can 
you say about Jamaica? (48) What two republics on the island of 
Haiti? Name their capitals. (49) Give the history of the island. 
(50) What are its products? (51) How have most of the Lesser 
Antilles been formed? (52) What is their principal product? 
(53) How have the Bahama Islands been built? (54) Tell about 
the sponges. (55) Name some of the other products of the islands. 

Suggestion. — (56) How does each of the four largest islands 
compare in area and population with New York State ? (See tables, 
pp. 446 and 447.) 

The Bermudas. — (57) How have the Bermudas been built? 
(58) What are their products? 

For References, see pages 442-443. 
2d 



SUMMAKY AND CONCLUSION 



3WKC 



Physical Geography. — The natural advantages that North 
America possesses as a home for man have been the result 
of slow changes extending through millions of years. 
How have the mountains been brought into existence ? 
(p. 2) and where are the principal chains ? How was 
coal formed ? (p. 3.) What portion of the continent 
was covered by the glacier? (Fig. 13.) What work of 
advantage to us did it accomplish ? (pp. 16-19.) In 
what ways is the more recent rising or sinking of the 
coast of importance ? (p. 19.) 

Where does our heat come from ? What would be the 
result if the earth's axis were not inclined ? (p. 29.) How 
does the change of seasons affect our habits ? What are 
the causes of these changes ? (p. 31.) 

What great service do the winds render ? Explain the 
cause of wind (pp. 39-42). What are the trade winds ? 
(p. 42.) The prevailing westerlies? (p. 50.) Cyclonic 
storms? (pp. 52-55.) How is North America affected 
by each ? 

Tell about the ocean currents near our eastern coast 
(p. 66). Near our western coast (p. 68). What is the 
influence of each ? 

What about the variety of climates in North America? 
(p. 76.) In the United States? How do the animals and 
plants vary? (pp. 77-90.) Describe the manner of life 

403 



404 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



among the Indians (p. 93). What European nations en- 
deavored to obtain possession of large sections of this 
continent? (pp. 97-101.) Give some reasons why the 
English succeeded most fully (p. 101). 

Population. — At the present time there are probably 
more than a hundred million people living in North Amer- 
ica, distributed among the four greater sections as follows : 




Distribution of the Population \ 
of the United States. 1890. 
LEGEND: 
L — I Few People 
t_^J Sparsely Populated 
i^Siil Densely Populated 
H Moat Densely Populated Section 



Fig. 321. 



Central America, over three million ; Canada, fully six 
million ; Mexico, over thirteen million ; and the United 
States (not including dependencies), more than seventy- 
six million. From these figures it is evident that about 
three-fourths of all the inhabitants of the continent are 
living in the United States. Figure 321 shows the den- 
sity of population in the different parts of the Union. 
Where is the most thickly settled quarter ? Why ? The 
most sparsely settled ? Figure 323 gives the location of 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

New York. Fennsylvania. 



405 



S,99%3S3 




JZSQjOlt 



3,Q26J£l 



OTiio. 



Z679J84 



Fig. 322. 

The five states having the greatest population. In this and all the other 
similar figures the relative importance of the states is indicated by the 
area of the squares. 

the cities, the largest having the largest dots. On page 
447 is a table of the largest cities. Find the dot (Fig. 
323) that represents each city and give its population. In 
what respect are these two figures (321 and 323) alike ? 




Fig. 323. 
The star shows the centre of population of the United States. 

Country and City. — The great cities are so numerous, 
and are so often mentioned, that there is danger of over- 



406 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



estimating their importance as compared with the country. 
At the time of Washington very few people lived in cities. 
Even at the present time about two-thirds of our seventy- 
six million inhabitants live either in the country, or in 
towns with a population of less than eight thousand. In 
Mexico and Canada the proportion living in cities is still 
smaller. In other words, the great majority of persons in 
North America are country people. 




legend: 

I Considerable Corn Raised 

I Greatest Corn Raising Section 



h' \P : 



Fig. 324. 
On these maps the spaces left blank indicate either little or no production. 

Country. — The. leading occupations of those living out- 
side of the cities have already been studied. Agricul- 
ture is the most important of all. At the present time 
there are over five million families occupying farms in the 
United States. About how many persons does that rep- 
resent ? Why should so many people live on farms ? 

Figure 324 shows the regions that are extensively en- 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



407 



Iowa 



$ja.6t9.96a 




Illinois 



$49.989,9S% 
l99,9S9.aiO 



Afissonri. 






Texas. 



$33,8 1 W78 
W&,3 36,700 



Nebraska. 



$3t9Ze,0£T 

/sa7j*,eee 



Fig. 325. 

Corn production, in dollars and in bushels, in the five leading corn-producing 

states. 

gaged in raising corn. What states are included? In 
1898 nearly two billion bushels were produced ; how many 
is that to each of our inhabitants ? How is corn culti- 
vated, and what are its uses ? (p. 243.) 




legend: 

I Considerable Wheat Raised 

1 Greatest Wheat Raising District 



Fig. 326. 



Many of the states that raise corn are also extensively 
engaged in the wheat industry. Figure 326 shows the 
wheat regions. Tell about wheat in the valley of the Red 



408 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

Minnesota,. 

North DakoUt 




Fig. 327. 

Wheat production, in dollars and bushels, in the five leading wheat-producing 

states. 

River of the North, and about the Dalyrymple farm in 
particular (p. 246). Wheat and corn are our most valu- 




legeNd: v 

I Considerable Oat "Raising 
3 Greatest Oat Raising Section 



Fig. 328. 



able food crops. In what section are oats raised (Fig. 
328). Compare with Figures 824 and 326. What other 
grains can you mention, and for what is each used ? 

The cotton belt is confined entirely to the southeastern 
portion of the country, as shown in Figure 330. Why ? 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



409 



New York. 



$49.^81,667 
6,009,899 

Ttm.9 


Pennsylvania 


Iowa. 


California. 




$33,767,S17 
3,690.439 




$28JZ3,063 
6,711,309 


$2.4,444.691 
2,716,099 




$16.3 7*361 
Xfil3l91B 




. .^■^J^^gpi 











Fig. 329. 

Hay production, in dollars and tons, in the five principal hay-producing 
states. For what is hay used ?• 




Fig. 330. 



Texas. 


Mississippi 


Georgia 


Alabama 




Balea 


SCarolma 


1,JZ4,771 


1,3J0JB1 


1.112,661 


1030,085 











Fig. 331. 

Five principal cotton-producing states. 



410 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 
Cuoa 



1664862,000 
founds 




Hawaiian 



PortoWco. izifioqooa 



Fig. 332. 
Principal sugar-producing districts in the United States and its dependencies. 

Name the principal cotton-raising states. Tell about the 
growth and uses of cotton (p. 209). Where in these 
states are sugar and rice grown ? How is the work carried 
on ? (pp. 212, 213.) 

According to Figure 333 what states are largely engaged 
in tobacco growing ? What is the appearance of the plant, 
and how is it cultivated ? (p. 165.) 




Fig. 333. 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



411 



Below are three figures showing the principal states from 
which some of the other important farm products come. 




Fig. 334. 




Missouri 



$U,696jOZ8 
Z949 818 



$HS72,I$T 
K301.0&/ 



Illinois. Texas. 



#H077J89 
Kp08,».63 



$9,316906 
%6B 4,987 



Fig. 335. 
Number of hogs and their value in the five principal states. 



New York 


Iowa. 


Pennsylvania. 


Itttnoh. 




663.aiT.5ma 






Ohio. 


Mg&L 


408901 flit 


1368,906,460 


1 36%Z69,4€4 


yZ6,92$S96 


■^mS^Mfi^ x% " 










■■-'■^diip 





















Fig. 336. 
Five principal milk-producing states. 



412 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 




Fig. 337. 



Pennsylvania. 



Mining is a second industry which confines people 
largely to small towns and to the country. About four 
hundred thousand men are employed at it. How many 
different metals can you name ? How many other 

products can you men- 
tion that are obtained 
from underground ? 

Of them all, v the fuels 
are probably the most 
^*|{K? valuable. Why? What 
kinds are there ? Figure 
337 shows how extensive 
Name 
the states in which the 



$116,76,3,473 m \$U/M!&L9 \S9J3JZ09 

10 Z029,6JTt , \ ZOO 7S.JJS 0\ liysejtg. 

IOtnoa Ohio WVa 




$6.90 7.3 
t+.Z<t&J39 



Fig. 338. 

Coal production, in dollars and tons, in the coal-beds are 
the five leading coal-producing states. 



greatest quantities of coal are mined. Of what impor- 
tance is it that there are coal-fields in so many parts of the 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



413 



Michigan. 



country ? What kinds of coal are there ? And what are 
the differences between them? (pp. 4-5.) Describe a 
coal mine (p. 171). 
What are the uses 
of coal ? 

Name the chief 
states in which pe- 
troleum and natu- 
ral gas are found. fig. 339. 

Tell also llOW they Iron ore production, in dollars and tons, in the 
n , t -1 five leading iron ore-producing states. 

have been produced 

during the past ages and what their uses are (p. 173). 



$6,347 BIS 
0,08 7/10 3 


Minnesota. 




f 4.0Z9,077 
5,601,4Z9 


Alabama 




$(S'ie,s'/3 

X,09&pitl 












vet 1*?;,%:' 




«M"w£ 




75 70 



Fig. 340. 
Leading iron, copper, oil, and gas producing regions. 

The ores producing iron are among the most important 
of the mineral products. Why so important ? Where are 
the principal iron-producing regions? (Fig. 340.) How 



414 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 




Fig. 341. 
Gold and silver producing regions indicated by crosses. 

is pig iron made? (pp. 175-177.) Why is not the Lake 
Superior district a favorable place for smelting iron ore? 



Colorado: 



$79,/04,2OO J S~\ 




California. 



$f#.6W,300 
70 7. 160 



SDaTcota 



iJ.69H900 



Montana 



H373//00 
2J/.J63 



Nevada 



i2,S70JJ00 
It 3,983 



Fig. 342. 

Gold production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading gold-producing 

states. 

Among the metals of great importance to man are the 
precious metals gold and silver. Describe three methods 
of gold mining (pp. 289-290). Tell about gold and silver 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



415 



mining in California and Colorado (pp. 288-292). In 
what other parts of our country are the precious metals 



Colorado. 



$ 2.7,974:33S 
21636,400 


Montana. 




$20,2S7,487 
13,66 7,900 


Utah. 




$8)00,9 78 
6263:600 






$6,336,303 
490 1,200 


Arizon 






~^s 


. . ($2..at>6.0 3Z 


Fig. 343. 









Silver production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading silver-producing 

states. 

found ? What two sections are most noted for copper 
mining? Tell about that industry in each (pp. 258 and 
292). Where and how is stone quarrying carried on 
in New England? (pp. 133-136.) Also salt mining? 
(p. 1G9.) 



Kansas 




Fig. 344. 

Number of cattle and their value in the five principal cattle-producing states. 
Many of these are kept, not on ranches, hut on farms in the Eastern 
states. 

Grazing is a third important rural occupation. Point 
out on the map (Fig. 97) the portions of the country 
largely given up to it. Why these ? Relate how cattle 



416 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 




■$3 7.6 ae.ee e 

9613SZ 



$34,634,083 
J~90.73B 



Ohio. Pennsylvania. 



$23,791,016 
653,499 



$2.9,390,858 
JTVB, 74 7 



Fig. 345. 
Number of horses and their value in the five principal horse-producing states. 



Ohio. 



Montana 



Wyoming 



Oregon 



NewMexico. 




Fig. 316. 

Number of sheep and their value in the five leading sheep-producing states. 




Fig. 347. 

Map showing the regions from which considerable timber is now being 
obtained. 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



417 



ranching is carried on (p. 248) ; also sheep ranching 
(p. 303). Which states are most important in these 
industries ? 

Lumbering is a fourth great industry that attracts 
people to the country. Figure 347 shows the distribution 
of the forests. Describe 
the industry as it is car- 
ried on in Maine (p. 
127). In the South- 
ern States (p. 205). 
In Michigan (p. 252). 
In the Northwest (p. 
293). Why these dif- 
ferences ? Which are 
the most common kinds 
of trees? What are the 
products of the forest 
besides lumber ? (pp. 
132 and 207.) 

Fishing is a fifth 
prominent occupation 
outside of cities. In what 
sections is it especially 
important ? Describe 
how codfishing is car- 
ried on (p. 137); salmon 
fishing (p. 360) ; the oys- 
ter industry (p. 163). 

Altogether, therefore, there are five industries that lead 
the greater part of the inhabitants of the United States to 
live in small towns or in the country. Name these occu- 
pations. They furnish us with the raw materials for food, 
2e 




Fig. 348. 
Sections where ocean fish are found. 



418 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



clothing, and shelter. "What raw materials enter into each, 
and whence does each come ? 

Cities. — What are the principal occupations in the 
cities? The answer has been repeatedly suggested. 
What, for instance, are the main kinds of business in 
Duluth? (p. 261.) In Minneapolis? (p. 271.) In Chi- 
cago? (pp. 262-267.) In Buffalo? (p. 186.) In New 




Fig. 349. 



York? (p. 187.) In Baltimore? (p. 193.) In San Fran- 
cisco? (p. 312.) Tell what is done in various cities with 
grain, ores, hides, cotton, wool, lumber, and fish. 

It is evident that one of the principal occupations in 
cities is manufacturing. Where, for example, is the 
making of iron goods especially important? Tobacco? 
Sugar? Paper? Farming implements? Furniture? 
Freight and passenger cars? Cotton cloth? Woollen 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



419 



$264,S71,6Z.4 



IlLf 39,011,0 ft 

Ohio 




N^N.J. 



SevYork. $ IS.S 1 9.S3 T 
J/ewJersey $ttfitO.SlS 



Cloth? A Single large Pennsylvania. 

factory may employ thou- 
sands of workmen (p. 147), 
and where hundreds of 
factories are established, 
as in New York, Chi- 
cago, and Philadelphia, 
there must be an enor- 
mous population. More 
than five million persons are engaged in manufacturing 
in the United States. 

A second great occupation in cities is that of buying 
and selling. Although grain, cotton, wool, etc., are 
produced in immense quantities in the country, they are 
not generally bought and sold there. That work must 
be carried on where there are great numbers of people ; 



Fig. 350. 

Value of iron manufacturing in the five 
leading iron manufacturing states. 



Massachusetts. 


Pennsylvania. 




$ /84,9 ■38,074 

//TT\\\- '•' 




$/3Z.367?t99 




Rhodeld. - . 


$36,1 77,293 


$67,003,615 


$3%&31023 











F.G. 351. 

Value of the manufacture of textiles (cotton, wool, etc.) in the five leading 
textile manufacturing states. 

for where else could it be done so successfully? If a 
person living in a city should want only a bushel of pota- 
toes, he would not go to a farmer for them, but to a store 
to which many other people also go to buy goods. So 
also, if you were a farmer in Illinois and wanted to buy a 
carload of cattle to fatten, you would not go out West to 



420 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



a cattle ranch, but probably to the stock yards at Chicago, 
where many cattle are always to be found. Or if you had 
a quantity of cotton to dispose of, where else could you 
do it better than in some city where cotton is bought and 
sold, as in New Orleans or Memphis ? Not only must there 
be stores where we can buy what we need, but there must 
also be centres, or cities, where goods may be bought and 
sold on a still larger scale. A city bears much the same 
relation to the country round about that a store does to 
the people who live near enough to trade there. 



New York 



$Qi5 76.70i.99l 




Pennsylvania 



ll90J46,J>J0 



IUtnoi3. 



$Z066,7jr/,7/9 fa&J&8&89 



Ohio. 



Mass. 



$38«?<S4jr'/77 



Fig. 352. 
Wealth in dollars of the five wealthiest states. 



The trading in every large city is of two kinds, — retail 
aud wholesale. There are grocery stores, for example, 
which supply the resident families with the small amounts 
of flour, sugar, salt, and other groceries that they need 
from day to day. These stores, which carry on a retail 
trade, exist by hundreds in various parts of the large 
cities. Of course the storekeepers must have places where 
they can buy the goods which they sell. That is, there 
must be tvholesale stores, some dealing in groceries, others 
in dry goods, and still others in fruits ; and there must 
also be companies which carry on a wholesale trade in 
coal, lumber, cotton, and many other materials. 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 421 

On page 187 it was stated that the wholesale buildings 
in New York occupy several square miles on the southern 
end of Manhattan Island ; and in other large cities similar 
stores are usually found collected in one section. A large 
company engaged in the wholesale business, not only sells 
to those who come to buy, but it also sends out travelling 
men who, as their agents, journey from town to town 
taking orders for goods. There are now fully three hun- 
dred thousand of these commercial travellers, journeying 
about in the United States as agents of the wholesale 
houses of the larger cities. 

Since enormous quantities of raw material must be 
shipped into the cities for the manufacture of goods, 
and since most of the finished articles are sent away, the 
business of shipping, or transporting, is a third great 
occupation in cities. Tens of thousands of men are 
employed all the time in loading and unloading cars, 
boats, and wagons. 

In this country fully four million persons are em- 
ployed in buying, selling, and transporting, or in com- 
merce, as these kinds of business together are called. 
What raw products are taken to Detroit, and what fin- 
ished products are taken away ? Answer the same in 
regard to Milwaukee, Peoria, Louisville, Providence, Den- 
ver, and New Orleans. If your home is in the city, 
answer the same for that ; if not, for the nearest city. 

Thus there are three leading occupations in cities ; 
namely, manufacturing, trading, and transporting. 
Every city has all three ; but some that are particularly 
distinguished for the first are known as manufacturing 
centres; and others, distinguished especially for the 
second, are known as trade centres. Minneapolis is an 



422 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

example of the former, and St. Paul of the latter. Give 
other examples of each. Those cities, like Boston, New 
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago, San Francisco, 
and Montreal, whose location is especially favorable for 
the shipment of goods, are great commercial centres, 
and usually also manufacturing centres. Why? 

The relation between country and city is now clear. 
Nearly one-half of our men are engaged in obtaining raw 
materials, and the remainder are mainly engaged in manu- 
facturing them into useful articles, in buying, selling, and 
transporting them. Show by numerous examples how 
neither class can well do without the other. 

But while they are so dependent, the life of one is very 
different from that of the other. Recall farm life as de- 
scribed on page 240. What notion have you gotten of 
farm life on southern plantations ? Of the miner's man- 
ner of living? The ranchman's? (p. 252.) The lumber- 
man's? (p. 128.) The fisherman's ? (p. 137.) 

Recall, on the other hand, what was said about life in 
New York City (p. 189). Give your notion of factory 
life. Of life in trade and transportation. 

What attractions and objections do you find in each of 
these several occupations ? Is the work of a farm hand 
more or less narrowing than that of a factory hand ? 
Why ? Suppose that two young men are much alike in 
ability, disposition, and training ; how are they liable to 
grow unlike if one chooses mining for an occupation, and 
the other chooses trade ? Give other instances showing- 
how the work that one follows influences his manner of 
life and development. 

It is difficult to determine which occupation requires 
the hardest work, for success demands one's best effort, no 



SUMMARY. AND CONCLUSION 423 

matter what the occupation be. But of those living in 
the city on the one hand, and in the country on the other, 
which are more certain of the ordinary necessities of life ? 
Why ? Which have more comforts ? Why ? Which are 
more independent in general ? Why ? Which have the 
better opportunities for amusement ? Why ? For educa- 
tion ? Why ? For homes with plenty of light and fresh 
air? Why? 

For many years the population of cities has been in- 
creasing more rapidly than that of the country, which 
suggests that people are preferring city to country life. 
Can you give any reasons for this in addition to those 
already mentioned ? 

Both city and country people are finally dependent on 
Mother Earth for all that they have : minerals can be 
obtained because of certain changes that have been going 
on for ages ; most of the soil has been prepared either by 
the slow decay of rock, or by the grinding up of rock by 
the glacier ; the sun's heat, together with the rotation and 
revolution of the earth, determines our seasons, our winds, 
rains, and ocean currents, in short, climate of one kind or 
another. The facts presented in the first chapters of this 
book constitute the foundation for everything that follows; 
for it is as a result of these facts that we are able to live as 
we do. 

Dependence of Different Sections upon one Another. — No 
one locality produces many of the materials needed there. 
Which of your foods are not raised near your home? 
How about the knives, forks, dishes, and spoons? How 
about the clothes that you wear ? 

Because of the climate, water power, soil, or for some 
other reason,, each part of the country is especially fitted 



424 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

for producing one or several things, as eastern Kansas for 
grain, and western Kansas for stock, northern Maine 
for lumber, etc. Indeed, most of the articles used in each 
part of the country must be brought from other places. 
Name the materials that the Montana ranchman needs 
from the Southern planter ; from New England ; from 
Minneapolis and Chicago. Upon what parts of the United 
States are the inhabitants of Florida dependent? What 
do they supply in return ? Make a list of the materials 
used in the construction of your house, and, as far as 
possible, determine where each one may have come from. 
The different parts of the country are of vital impor- 
tance to one another, much as different parts of the body 
are. 

Relation to our Territories and Dependencies. — Despite 
our broad territory and enormous number of products, 
there are some necessary articles that are either entirely 
lacking, or cannot be produced in sufficient quantities 
within our own borders. Name a few (see table, p. 455). 
Mention some that we are therefore glad to receive from 
Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, and the 
Philippines. Mention others that they likewise are glad 
to receive from us. State, then, how the United States 
and its dependencies are of advantage to one another. 

Other Countries of North America. — The principal 
industries in southern Canada and Newfoundland are 
necessarily similar to those in the northern United States. 
What about agriculture there? (p. 363.) Where is coal 
mined? (p. 365.) Precious metal? (p. 365.) What 
about grazing ? (p. 362.) Lumbering? (p. 356.) Fishing 
and sealing? (pp. 358-361.) Compare the raw products 
of southern Canada with those of our Northern States. 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 425 

Name and locate the principal cities. The leading trade 
route. Mention the chief kinds of manufacturing. (For 
above, see pp. 366-371.) 

Describe the surface of Mexico (p. 378). The climate 
(p. 379). What are the agricultural products from its 
arid plateaus ? (p. 381.) From its lowlands? (p. 384.) 
From the slopes between? (p. 384.) Tell about the forests 
of Mexico (p. 385). The mining (p. 386). Give some 
reasons why there is little manufacturing in that coun- 
try (p. 389). Locate the principal cities. 

Name the five republics of Central America. Describe 
the surface of the country and the climate (p. 390). Name 
the principal industries (p. 391). Tell about canals 
across the isthmus (p. 392). Mention the largest islands 
among the West Indies. What are their chief industries ? 
(pp. 394-398.) What industries in the United States are 
not found in Canada? In Mexico? In Central America? 
What industries in any one of the latter countries are 
not found in the United States ? 

Our Relation to Other Countries. — The United States, 
like one small locality, produces far more of some mate- 
rials than we can consume, while other important articles 
must come wholly, or in part, from abroad. Give exam- 
ples of each. If we could not secure a market for our 
products in foreign lands, we should suffer seriously; and, 
if the foreign countries could not be induced to provide us 
with what we need, we should suffer again. Other coun- 
tries are in the same condition. Show how that is true of 
Canada ; of Mexico. There is excellent reason, therefore, 
for a constant exchange of goods among the nations of 
the world. How does the size of our country give us 
a great advantage in this respect ? 



426 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

We sell more goods to Great Britain than to any other 
foreign land. In fact, hundreds of millions of dollars' 
worth of cotton, wheat, flour, cattle, corn, meat, and oil 
are sent to that county every year (see table, p. 455). 
We receive in return, large quantities of woollen, cotton, 
and rubber goods, and articles made of vegetable fibres, 
hides, and skins (see table, p. 455). Trade is carried on 
in the same manner with Germany, France, and other 
countries. The goods that we send forth are called 
exports, and those brought in, imjjorts. 

Our ten leading exports, named in order of value, are: 

(1) breadstuffs, including wheat, corn, flour, and other grains ; 

(2) cotton ; (3) meat and dairy products ; (4) iron and steel 
goods ; (5) mineral oils ; (6) animals, particularly cattle ; 

(7) lumber and articles made of wood ; (8) cotton goods ; 

(9) tobacco; (10) leather goods. From what part of the 
United States does each of these chiefly come ? 

Our ten leading imports are, in order of value : (1) coffee ; 
(2) sugar and molasses ; (3) silk ; (4) chemicals, drugs, etc. ; 
(5) hides and skins; (6) vegetable fibres and articles manu- 
factured from them ; (7) cotton and goods made from cotton ; 

(8) wool and woollen goods ; (9) rubber and rubber goods ; 

(10) fruits and nuts. In the table, page 455, find the regions 
from which these materials chiefly come. 

More than half of all our exports and imports are sent 
by way of New York alone. Why ? Other ports, next 
in importance, are : Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, 
New Orleans, Galveston, and San Francisco. The total 
value of our exports in 1898 was 81.231,482,330 ; of our 
imports, -$616,049,654 (see table, p. 455). 

Some imports are permitted to enter the country free ; but 
upon most of them there is a duty, that is, a charge for the 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



427 



privilege of entering the country. This duty is a source of 
income or revenue for the government. It is also intended to 
serve as a protection to home industries by preventing foreign 
products from being sold in our country at a lower rate than 
we can produce them. However, it sometimes causes consider- 
able hardship. For example, a citizen of the United States, 
living even on the very border of Canada, cannot buy from 
that country such articles as lumber and wood pulp without 
paying a duty upon them. This causes us to pay a higher 
price for some articles than we would have to pay if no duty 
were placed upon them. Therefore, the boundary line between 
two neighboring countries is often of real importance as a 
barrier to free trade. 




Fig. 353. 
Navigable rivers represented by beavy lines. 

Transportation Routes. — The chief inland water routes 
for transportation of goods have often been mentioned. 
What are they ? About twice as much freight is carried 



428 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



over the Great Lakes as on the Mississippi system. 
Mention some of the principal kinds carried on each. 
The fact that the Great Lakes system extends so far east 
and west is of great importance. This route, by furnish- 
ing a cheap means of transportation to the Eastern coast, 
opens up a very productive region in a favorable, temper- 
ate climate. Upon reaching the coast these goods may 
readily be shipped to Europe, our principal foreign market. 




Map Showing Railroads 

IN THE 

United States 



Fig. 354. 

It is largely because of these facts that most of the 
people of the country are living either along the north- 
eastern coast or else from there westward to the Missis- 
sippi. On Figure 323 find the centre of population in the 
United States. 

Figure 354 shows an enormous number of railways in 
the United States. They now carry fully three times as 
much freight as all the water routes together. In what 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



429 



part of the country are most of them found? Why there ? 
Which quarter is next best supplied with them ? Which 
portion has fewest lines ? How does the location of lines 
on this figure compare with the location of cities on Figure 




Fig. 355. 
Some of the principal railway lines of North America. 

323? What about the direction of a majority of the rail- 
way lines ? Count the number of railways that reach east 
and west across the western half of the continent (Fig. 
355). In what city on the Pacific coast does each of 
these terminate ? 



430 



SUMMABY AND CONCLUSION 



Influence of Steam and Electricity. — The steam used 
upon the waterways and railways has been one of the 
most powerful factors in populating and developing our 
country. A century ago it required two days to travel 
from New York to Philadelphia, and six days from New 
York to Boston. In the latter case only two trips per 
week were made by stage. The journeys were not only 
very tiresome, but were also filled with hardships, and often 
with dangers. There were but thirteen daily papers in 
the United States, and neither papers nor books could be 



MiddleAtlantic States. 




New Eng. States Central States. 



11.72 



1 0.63 



S.31 



2.09 



Fig. 356. 

The figures represent the number of miles of railway for every one hundred 
square miles of territory in each of the five groups of states. 



sent by mail. Letters cost from six to twenty-five cents, 
according to the distance, and, as the expense of carrying 
them was so great, they were not sent from the smaller 
towns until a number were collected. 

Now we can travel as far in an hour as formerly in a 
day, and with much more convenience. There are fully 
two thousand daily papers, and these, as well as letters, 
may be sent quickly and cheaply to every section of the 
country. We can even send a telegraph message to a 
distant point in an instant, and can talk by telephone 
with a person hundreds of miles away, even recognizing 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 431 

the tones of his voice. To one of our ancestors of a cen- 
tury ago either one of these wonders, to which we are 
now so accustomed, would have seemed an utter impos- 
sibility. 

Influence of Modern Inventions on Mode of Life. — The 
effect of such a might} r change is seen in every direction. 
Each year thousands of carloads of fruit are shipped to 
Eastern cities from California. If there were no railways, 
how could it reach these cities? What, then, would be 
the effect on southern California? Also how could the 
corn of the Central States be marketed? And how could 
furniture, sugar, etc., be brought to the Western farmer's 
door? Trace other results of this change. 

If we were suddenly deprived of our quick transporta- 
tion, within a few days there would be a famine in every 
large city. Even now, when heavy falls of snow block 
the trains only for a day or two, the supply of milk, meat, 
and other necessities quickly runs low, and the prices rise 
to several times their ordinary value. 

If we had no railway trains, there might also be exten- 
sive famines from time to time over large areas of coun- 
try, as there were in the olden times, and as there are 
even at present in China. Why especially in China ? As 
it is, however, hundreds of articles of food and clothing 
are quickly brought from distant points at a trifling cost. 
Mention several such articles. No one locality is in dan- 
ger of suffering from want of food because, if the supply 
fails there, it is easily obtained from other sections. 

The effect of steam and electricity on the industries and 

r inhabitants of cities is striking. Persons living scores of 

miles away often do much of their shopping in the cities. 

Also, owing to trolley lines, elevated railways, and other 



432 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



means of rapid transit, those engaged in manufacture or 
commerce are enabled to live many miles distant from 
their places of work and thus secure more healthful homes 
in the suburbs. Because so many people are able to have 
their homes in the suburbs, the cities are not nearly so 
overcrowded as they otherwise would be. 

Influence of our Surroundings on Education and Govern- 
ment. — When our Union was formed, more than a cen- 




Fig. 357. 
Map to show -when and how the United States ohtained its territory. 

tury ago, many wise persons believed it an almost impos- 
sible experiment. Our population was scattered over so 
many hundred miles along the Atlantic coast (Fig. 86) 
that people living in one part were apt to know and 
care little about those in another part far away. It 
seemed probable that quarrels and wars would arise, as a 
result of differences of opinion, and therefore that our 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 



433 



republican government might be dissolved into several 
governments. 

Nevertheless, our boundaries have been so enlarged as 
to include far more territory than was originally thought 
possible (Fig. 357). Aside from that, more than eighteen 
million foreigners have settled in our country since 1821, 
bringing to our shores all the principal races of mankind 
(see table, p. 454), and many of the leading languages 
(Fig. 358), religions, and political beliefs of the world ; 
but in spite of all this we have kept in such close touch 
with one another that our Union has grown stronger and 
stronger. 




Fig. 358. 

Left-hand figure shows countries from which most of our -immigrants come. 
Right-hand diagram shows the proportion of our population which is 
native and foreign. 



Each day, by rail and water, articles are being sent to 
all parts of the country. In all the states the people read 
the same news every morning, and whatever books are 
found especially valuable in one section are quickly made 
known in others. Thus we not only enjoy far better 
opportunities for education than formerly, but we learn 
to know one another ; we have the same thoughts, and we 
2f 



434 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

feel a mutual sympathy. So far as meeting and under- 
standing one another are concerned, our country is really 
far smaller than it was a hundred years ago; we are liv- 
ing together like one very large family. 

It has been a difficult task to convert people from so 
many quarters of the globe to one common product, called 
Americans, who believe heartily in our republican govern- 
ment (p. 107). But the attempt has not been a failure. 
Many have gone to the farms, where they have helped to 
supply the raw products ; others have gone to the mining 
regions ; but great numbers have settled in the cities, 
where they are chiefly engaged in work connected with 
manufacturing and commerce. Some are densely igno- 
rant ; but the great majority steadily improve in condition, 
adopt the American customs and ideas, and become good 
citizens. 

Relation between Man and Earth. — The success of our 
experiment has been due not alone to the people, nor to 
the form of government, though both people and govern- 
ment have aided. The country has been one of splendid 
opportunities : vast forests have supplied us with lumber 
in abundance ; fertile soils, broad plains, and varied cli- 
mates have made it possible to raise, not merely abundant 
crops, but many different kinds ; arid plains have invited 
the ranchman ; and mountains and plateaus have yielded 
mineral fuels, iron, copper, gold, silver, and other mineral 
products in excess of our own needs. 

Not merely are there raw products of nearly all kinds 
that we need, but there are abundant opportunities for 
changing them into the various manufactured articles 
which help to supply our wants. Water power and coal 
for manufacturing are easily accessible over a large part of 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 435 

the country. Our water routes (Fig. 353) and abundance 
of excellent harbors furnish natural facilities for the move- 
ment of raw materials and manufactured products, and 
the temperate climate is favorable to the development of 
an energetic race. 

The American people have been equal to the task of- 
making good use of these unexcelled natural resources, 
and the free government has encouraged them to be inde- 
pendent, and has fortunately placed few unwise restric- 
tions in their way. Thus the development of the nation, 
as well as of single industries, has been due not alone to 
men, but, in large part also, to their surroundings. The 
relation of man to earth, which it is the province of geog- 
raphy to present, is 'therefore seen to be very intimate, 
from whatever standpoint we may consider it. 



APPENDIX I 

KEFEKENCES TO BOOKS, AETICLES, ETC. 1 



Key to Abbreviations 

Publishing Houses. — American Book Co., New York (A. B. C.) ; 
D. Appleton & Co., New York (Appleton); The Century Co., 
New York (Century) ; Educational Publishing Co., Boston (E. P. 
C.) ; The Ginn Co., Boston (Ginn) ; Harper and Bros., New York 
(Harper) ; Longmans, Green & Co., New York (L. G.) ; The Mac- 
millan Co., New York (McM.) ; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York 
(Putnam); Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago (R. McN.) ; Chas. Scrib- 
ner's Sons, New York (Scribner) ; Silver, Burdett & Co., New York 
(S. B. C). 

Magazines, etc. — Bulletin American Geographical Society ($1.00 a 
number, $4.00 a- year) New York (Bull. A. G. S.); Publications of 
the Bureau of American Republics, Washington, D. C. (B. Amer. R.); 
Canadian Magazine ($0.25), Toronto, Canada (C. M.); Cassier's 
Magazine ($0.25), New York (Cass.); Century Magazine ($0.35), 
New York (Cent. Mag.); Cosmopolitan ($0.10), Irvington, N. Y. 
(Cos.); Chautauquan ($0.25), Meadville, Pa. (Chaut.); Harper's 
Magazine ($0.25), New York (H. M.) ; McClure's ($0.10), New York 
(McClure); National Geographic Magazine ($0.25 a number, $2.00 a 
year, including membership to society), Washington, D. C. (N. G. 
M.); New England Magazine ($0.35), Boston (N. E. M.); Popular 

1 Many of the books referred to in the First Book of this series will be 
found of use for this volume also ; but it has not seemed necessary to re- 
fer to all of these a second time. These references are not intended to be 
exhaiistive : a few good books are selected, and others omitted because of 
their cost or for other reasons. In the case of the magazine articles, too, 
only a few of the many good ones are mentioned. 

437 



438 APPENDIX I 

Science Monthly ($0.25), New York (P. S. M.); Scribner's Magazine 
(10.35), New York (S. M.). 

In referring to magazines the volume is given first, the page last, 
thus, Vol. 5. p. 69 = 5 : 69. 



General. — For references to magazines and journals, see First 
Book, pp. 256-257. Mill, "Hints to Teachers Concerning the Choice 
of Geographical Books " (L. G., $1.25) ; " The Statesman's Year Book " 
(McM., $3.00); Mill, "The International Geography" (Appleton, 
$3.50) ; Herbertson, " Man and His Work " (McM., $0.50) ; Lyde, " Man 
and His Markets" (McM., $0.50); Geikie, "The Teaching of Geog- 
raphy" (McM., $0.60); Pratt, "American History Stories" (E. P. C, 
4 vols., $0.36 each) ; Brooks, " Century Book for Young Americans " 
(Century, $1.50); Rocheleau, "Great American Industries" (C. A. 
Flanagan, Chicago, 2 vols., $0.50 each); Chase and Clow, " Stories of 
Industry" (E. P. C, 2 vols., $0.40 each) ; Coe, " Our American Neigh- 
bors " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel " (Ginn, $1.00) ; 
Smith, " Our Own Country " (S. B. C, $0.50) ; Carpenter, " Geo- 
graphical Reader, North America " (A. B. C, $0.60) ; Carrol, " Around 
the World Geography Series," Book II. (The Morse Co., New York, 
$0.38); King, "Picturesque Geographical Readers" (Lee & Shepard, 
Boston, Vol. 2, $0.72, Vols. 3, 4 and 5 each $0.56) ; Ingersoll, " The 
Book of the Ocean " (Century, $1.50); Lyde, " A Geography of North 
America" (McM., $0.50) ; Reclus, " The Earth and Its Inhabitants," 
Vols. XV, XVI, and XVII, very valuable, but expensive (Appleton, 
$5.00 each); "Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel," 
North America, Vol. 1, " Canada " by Dawson ; Vol. 2, " United States " 
by Gannett (Scribner, $4.50 each). 

Section I. Physiography. — Shaler, " Outlines of the Earth's His- 
tory " (Appleton, $1.75) ; Shaler, "The Story of Our Continent "(Ginn, 
$0.75); Shaler, "-Aspects of the Earth" (Scribner, $2.50); Davis, 
"Physical Geography" (Ginn, $1.25); Tarr, " Elementary Physical 
Geography " (McM., $1.40, contains references to works on physiog- 
raphy); Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geography" (McM., $1.10); 
Tarr, "Elementary Geology" (McM., $1.40); Russell, "Rivers of 
North America " (Putnam, $2.00) ; Russell, " Lakes of North America " 
(Ginn, $1.50) ; Russell, "Glaciers of North America" (Ginn, $1.75) ; 
National Geographic Monographs (A. B. C, $2.50). 



REFERENCES 439 

Sections II and III. — Books by Davis and by Tarr referred to in 
Section I ; Ward, " Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology " 
(Ginn, $1.12). 

Section IV. Ocean Currents, etc. — Books by Davis and by Tarr 
(See Sect. I) ; Shaler, " Sea and Land " (Scribner, $2.50) ; Pillsbury, 
"The Gulf Stream" (U. S. Coast Survey, Washington); Darwin, 
"Tides" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., N. Y., $2.00); Guyot, "The 
Earth and Man " (Scribner, $1.75) ; " The Depths of the Sea" (S. M., 
July, '92, 12 : 77) ; " How the Sea is Sounded " (P. S. M., Jan., '94, 
44:334). 

Section V. Animals, Plants, etc. — " The Arid Regions of the 
United States " (N. G. M., '93, 5 : 167) ; Wright, " Four-footed Ameri- 
cans " (McM., $1.50) ; Roosevelt, " Hunting Trips of a Ranchman " 
(Putnam, $3.00) ; Whitney, " On Snowshoes to the Barren Grounds " 
(Harper, $3.50) ; Heilprin, "The Geographical and Geological Distri- 
bution of Animals " (Appleton, $2.00) ; Ingersoll, "Wild Neighbors" 
(McM., $1.50); "How the Settlement of North America has affected 
Its Wild Animals " {Bull. A. G. S., '85, 17 : 17) ; Shaler, " Nature and 
Man in America " (Scribner, $1.50) ; Shaler, " Domesticated Animals " 
(Scribner, $2.50). 

The United States. — Gannett, " The Building of a Nation " (The 
H. T. Thomas Co., New York, $2.50); Baedeker, "The United 
States " (Scribner, $3.60) ; Tarr, " Economic Geology of the United 
States" (McM., $3.50); Channing, "Students' History of the 
United States" (McM., $1.40); MacCoun, "An Historical Geog- 
raphy of the United States" (Townsend MacCoun, New York, 
$1.00) ; Whitney, " The United States " (Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 
$2.00) ; Patton, " The Natural Resources of the United States " 
(Appleton, $3.00); King, "Handbook of the United States" (Moses 
King Corporation, Buffalo, N. Y., $2.50) ; " The Growth of the United 
States" (N. G. M., '98, 9:377); "The Conduct of Great Businesses" 
(S. M., several numbers, Vols. 21 and 22, 1897); "Distribution of 
Manufactures in the United States" {Chant, Sept., '98, 27:587); 
" Textile Industries of the United States " (Chaut., March, 99, 28 : 538) ; 
"Modern Light House Service" (Cass., Aug. and Sept., '94, 6:297 
and 355) ; ." The Life Saving Service " (P. S. M., Jan., '94, 44 : 346). 

Section VIII. New England. — Davis, "Physical Geography of 
Southern New England " (A. B. C, $0.20) ; " American Lumber " 



440 APPENDIX I 

(ChauL, Feb., '99, 28:436) ; Thoreau, "The Maine Woods" (Hough- 
ton, Mifflin & Co., New York, |1.50); "Fishing Industries of the 
United States" (ChauL, Jan., '98, 26:387); "New England Fish- 
eries " (N. E. M., Apr., '94, 10 : 229) ; Kipling, " Captains Courageous " 
Century, $1.50) ; " The Granite Industry in New England " (N. E. M., 
Feb., '92, 5:742); "Cotton Manufactures of New England " {ChauL, 
April, '93, 17 : 37) ; " Cotton Spinning in North and South " (P. S. M., 
Oct., '90, 37 : 798) ; " The Manufacture of Wool," (P. S. M., June, July, 
Aug., '91, 39 : 176, 289, and 454); "Leather Making" (P. S.M., July, 
'92, 41 : 339) ; " The Manufacture of Boots and Shoes " (P. S. M., Aug., 
'92, 41:496); "Boston at the Century's End" (H. M., Nov., '99, 
99 : 823). 

Section IX. Middle Atlantic States. — Gilbert, "Niagara Falls and 
Their History " (A. B. C, $0.20) ; " The Coal Industry " {ChauL, Jan., 
'93, 16 : 416) ; Articles on Iron and Steel (Cass., five papers, July to Nov., 
'93, Vols. 4 and 5 ; Feb., '00, 17 : 259 ; McClure, June, '94, 3:3; H. M., 
March, '94, 88 : 587) ; " The Manufacture of Iron " (P. S. M., Dec, '90 ; 
Feb. and March, '91, 38 : 145, 449, and 586); "The Manufacture of 
Steel" (P. S. M., Oct., Nov., '91, 39 : 729, and 40 : 15) ; Articles on Ship 
Building (Cass., July, '92, 2 : 157; Aug., '97, 12 : 341, and 393; March, 
'98, 13 : 385); " Canning Industry in the United States " (ChauL, Nov., 
'98, 28 : 126) ; " The Water Front of New York (S. M., Oct., '99, 26 : 
385); "The City of Homes" (H. M., June, '94, 89:3); "The New 
Baltimore " (H. M., Feb., '96, 92 : 331) ; " Washington Society " 
(H. M., March and April, '93, 86 : 586 and 674). 

Section X. Southern States. — Hayes, " The Southern Appalachians " 
(A. B. C, $0.20); Ralph, "Dixie, or Southern Scenes and Sketches" 
(Harper, $2.50, published originally in H. M., 1892-95); Brooks, 
" Cotton, Its Uses, Culture, etc." (Spon and Chamberlain, New York, 
$3.00); "Culture and Preparation of Cotton in the United States" 
(Cos., March, '93, 14:539); "Sugar in the United States" (ChauL, 
June, '92, 15 : 290 ; Oct., '92, 16 : 36) ; " Rice and Its Culture " (P. S. M., 
Oct., '90, 37:827); "The Old Dominion" (H. M., Dec, '93, 88:4); 
" Subtropical Florida " (S. M., March, '94, 15 : 345) ; " Texas " (H. M., 
Sept., '93, 87 : 561) ; "An Indian Commonwealth" (Indian Territory) 
(H. M., Nov., '93, 87 : 884). 

Section XI. Central States. — Dryer, " Studies in Indiana Geography " 
(Inland Pub. Co., Indianapolis, Ind., $0.50); Hovey, " Celebrated Ameri- 



REFERENCES 441 

can Caverns" (R. Clarke Co., Cincinnati, O., $2.00); "The Mammoth 
Cave" {Cent. Mag., March, '98, 33 : 643) : " The Development of Rail- 
roads in the United States" (Chaut, Oct., '94, 20:1); "In White 
Pine Forests " (Cass., Sept., '94, 6 : 408) ; " Wheat and Its Distribution " 
(Cos., Nov. '98, 26 : 114) ; " Beet Sugar Industry in the United States " 
(Special Report, Department of Agriculture, Washington) ; " Ranch- 
ing " (H. M., Feb. and March, '94, 88 : 350 and 515) ; " The Chicago 
Packing Industry" (Cos., Oct., '99, 27 : 599); "Copper Mining in the 
United States" (Cass., Jan., '97, 11:215); "Chicago" (S. M., June, 
'95, 17:663). 

Section XII. Western States. — Parkman, " The Oregon Trail " (Lit- 
tle, Brown & Co., Boston, $1.00) ; " The New Northwest " (H. M., Jan. 
'98, 96:299); Ralph, "Our Great West" (Harper, $2.50, published 
originally in H. M., 1892-94); "The Pacific Coast Guide Book" 
(R. McN., $1.00); "The Grand Canon" (H. M., Aug., '98, 97: 
377); "The Great Walled River" (Bull. A. G. S., '87, 19: 113); 
"Gold and Silver Mining" (Chaut., March, '97, 24:670); "From 
Mine to Mint" (Cass., May, '94, 6:3); "Lumbering in the North- 
west" (Cos., May, '93, 15 : 63); "The Redwood Forest of the Pacific 
Coast" (N. G. M., '99, 10:145); "The United States Forest Re- 
serves " (P. S. M., Feb., '98, 52 : 456) ; Newell, " Irrigation on the 
Great Plains " ('96 Year Book, Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, p. 197); "The Grape Gatherers" (Cos., Oct., '99, 27:612); 
"Fruit Industry in California" (P. S. 31., Dec, '93, 44 : 200). 

Section XII. Dependencies, etc., Alaska. — Scidmore, " Guide Book 
to Alaska" (Appleton, $1.25) ; Swineford, "Alaska" (R.McN., $1.00) ; 
"Alaska" (B. Amer. R., $0.25); "Geographical Notes in Alaska" 
(Bull. A. G. S., '96, 28:1); "Alaska" (N. G. M., '98, 9:105-190, 
twelve articles); "Mountaineering in Alaska" (Bull. A. G. S., '96, 
28 : 217) ; " An Expedition Through the Yukon District " (N. G. M., 
'92, 4 : 117) ; " Life on a Yukon Trail " (N. G. M. '99, 10 : 377 and 
457) ; " The Rescue of the Whalers " (H. M., June, '99, 99 : 3) ; " The 
Alaskan Boundary" (N. G. M., '99, 10 : 425). 

Cuba and Porto Rico. — See under West Indies, p. 443. 

Hawaiian Islands. — Alexander, "A Brief History of the Hawaiian 
People" (A. B. C, $1.50) ; Whitney, "Hawaiian America" (Harper, 
$2.50) ; Young, " The Real Hawaii " (Doubleday and McClure Co., 
New York, $1.50) ; "Hawaii" (B. Amer. R., $0.25) ; "Report of the 



442 APPENDIX I 

Hawaiian Commission " (State Department, "Washington) ; " The 
Hawaiian Islands" (Bull. A. G. S., '89, 21:149); Wallace, "Island 
Life " ( McM., §1.75 ) ; Articles on Samoa (X. G. M., '99, 10 : 207). 

Philippines. — Worcester, " The Philippine Islands " (McM., $4.00) ; 
Younghusband, " The Philippines and Round About " (McM., $2.50) ; 
" Manila and the Philippines " (S. M., July, '98, 24 : 12) ; " Life in 
Manila" (Cent. Mag., Aug., '98, 34 : 563) ; "Report of the Philippine 
Commission" (State Department. Washington); Articles on the 
Philippines (X. G. M. '98, 9 : 257-304 ; '99, 10 : 33-72 ; '00 11 : 1); 
"The Philippine Islands" (Bull. A. G. S., 'S3, 15 : 73). 

Section XIV. Canada. — Hatton and Harvey, "Newfoundland" 
(Doyle and Whipple, Boston, $2.'50) ; " The Relation of the United 
States and Canada" (Senate Reports, No. 1530, Washington); 
Ralph, "On Canada's Frontier" (Harper, 82.50, published originally 
in H. M., 1892-95); Parkin, "The Great Dominion" (McM., 81.75) ; 
Baedeker, " The Dominion of Canada " (Scribner, 81-50) ; Canadian 
Guide Book, (Appleton, 81-00) ; Statistical Year Book (each year by 
Department of Agricultm-e, Ottawa) ; Canada, the Land of Water 
Ways" (Bull. A. G. S., '90, 22 : 351); Articles on Lumbering (C. M., 
April, '94, 2 : 549 and 556). 

The Far North. — Mrs. Peary, "My Arctic Journal" (Contemporary 
Publishing Co., Xew York, 82.00) ; Hayes, " The Land of Desolation " 
(Harper, 81-75); Xansen, "First Crossing of Greenland" (L. G., 
$1.25); "Days in the Arctic" (H. M., Sept., '98, 97:499); "The 
Glaciers of Greenland" (P. S. 21/., Nov., '94, 46 : 1); "Greenland and 
the Greenlanders " (P. S. M., July, '90, 37 : 302) ; " The Arctic High- 
lander " (S. 21/., Feb., '92, 11 : 241) ; " A Day's Hunting Among the 
Eskimos " (P. S. 21/., Feb., '95, 46 : 446) ; Boas, " A Year Among the 
Eskimo" (Bull. A. G. S., '87, 19 : 383). 

Section XV. Mexico. — " Guide to Mexico " (Appleton, $1.50) ; 
Baedeker, "The United States" (with an excursion into Mexico), 
(Scribner, $3.60) ; Bancroft, " Resources and Development of Mex- 
ico " (The Bancroft Co., San Francisco, 84.50) ; Romero, " Geo- 
graphical and Statistical Xotes on Mexico " (Putnam, $2.00) ; Romero, 
" Coffee and India Rubber Culture in Mexico " (Putnam, $3.00) ; " An 
Outpost of Civilization " (H. 21/., Dec, '93, 88 : 71) ; Griffin, '• Mexico 
of To-day" (Harper, 81-50); Lumis, "The Awakening of a Xation " 
(Harper, $2.50); "Mexico" (B. Amer. R., $0.50). 



BEFEBENCES ' 443 

Central America. — Belt, " Naturalist in Nicaragua " (Scribner and 
Welford, New York, $3.00) ; Calvo, " The Republic of Costa Rica " 
(R. McN., $2.00) ; Charles, " Honduras " (R. McN., $1.50) ; Hand- 
books (iJ. Amer. R.~) on Costa Rica, Honduras, Salvador, and Nicara- 
gua (each, $0.35, Guatemala, $0.25) ; Monthly Bulletins of the Same 
Bureau (each, $0.25) also contain information about American 
Republics; "Three Gringos in Central America" (H. M., Sept. and 
Oct., '91, 91 : 490 and 730) ; " India Rubber and Gutta Percha " (P. S. 
M., March, '97, 50 : 679) ; "Across Nicaragua" (N. G. M., '89, 1 : 315) ; 
Articles on the Nicaragua Canal (N. G. M., '99, 10:297). 

West Indies. — Hill, "Cuba and Porto Rico" (Century, #3.00) 
Rodway, " The West Indies and the Spanish Main " (Putnam, $1.75) 
Kingsley, "At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies" (McM.,$1.25) 
" The Foreign Commerce of Our Possessions," etc. (Treasury Depart- 
ment, Washington) ; Handbooks on Haiti and Santo Domingo (B. 
Amer. R., $0.35, each); "Cuba" (N. G. M., '98, 9:193); "Porto 
Rico " (N. G. M., '99, 10 : 93) ; " Haiti the Unknown " (H. M., Aug., 
'99, 99 : 365) ; "Havana since the Occupation" (S. M., July,' 99, 26 : 
86); "Aspects of Nature in the West Indies" (S. M., July, '93, 14: 
101) ; " How the Bananas Grow " (Cos., Feb., '98, 24 : 365) ; Heilprin, 
"The Bermuda Islands" (A. Heilprin, Philadelphia, $3.50). 

Government Publications. — Only a very few references are made to 
the many government publications of geographic interest. There are 
far too many to refer to. For instance, the Smithsonian Institution 
Annual Report usually contains articles on geographic subjects, and 
the Fish Commission has published many excellent accounts of the 
different fishing industries. From the Weather Bureau are issued not 
merely weather maps, but Annual Reports and Monthly Weather 
Reviews. 

Among the publications of the Geological Survey are reports 
upon Irrigation, Annual Reports containing many excellent accounts 
of the geology of interesting regions, especially mining regions, and 
also Annual Reports on the Mineral Resources of the country, with 
statistics. Besides these, the Geological Survey issues topographic 
maps (five cents each, or two cents by the hundred). A list of these 
maps can be obtained upon application, and the teacher may find a 
map of the region where the school is situated. 

A great range of topics is covered by the various Annual Reports 



444 . APPENDIX I 

(called Year Books) and Bulletins of the Department of Agriculture 
upon such subjects as farming, various crops, forestry, botany, mam- 
mals, irrigation, etc. Special reports of importance (some of which 
are referred to above) are issued by the Treasury Department, which 
also issues Statistical Abstracts on commerce, finance, population, etc. 
From the State Department, besides valuable special papers (like the 
Report of the Philippine Commission), are issued the Consular Re- 
ports, which have articles and notes upon foreign industries, etc. A 
wealth of geographical information is contained in the various Census 
volumes. Besides these, there are other reports, as that on the Prec- 
ious Metals, issued annually by the Director of the Mint, the Report 
of the Bureau of Ethnology, and the Report of the Commissioner on 
Indian affairs. The maps of the United States Coast Survey will be 
found of value, especially in those schools located on the coast, which 
should certainly have the maps of their immediate locality. Many 
states also issue valuable reports on agriculture, mining, manufactur- 
ing, etc. 

In order to find out about the government publications, one can 
often obtain a list of those issued by a given bureau by writing to the 
Superintendent of Public Documents, "Washington. A monthly list 
of all government publications is also prepared by the Superintendent 
of Public Documents, thus permitting one to keep track of new publi- 
cations. Some of the publications must be purchased, but many may 
be obtained by writing to one's congressman or senator, to whom copies 
are given for free distribution among constitutents. The great major- 
ity of government documents are issued for free distribution. Appli- 
cations for these, in moderation, are invariably granted when needed 
for schools, provided the quota is not already exhausted. 



APPENDIX II 

TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE CONTINENTS 





Area in Square 


Estimated Popu- 




Miles 


lation 1897 


Africa .... 


. 11,508,793 . 


. 170,000,000 


Asia (with islands) 


. 17,255,890 . 


. 831,000,000 


Australia 


2,946,691 . 


4,000,000 


Europe 


3,850,000 . . 


. 374,000,000 


North America 


6,446,000 . 


94,000,000 


South America 


6,837,000 . 


40,000,000 


Total . ... 


. 48,844,374 . 


. 1,513,000,000 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TER- 
RITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, NOT INCLUD- 
ING ALASKA, ETC. 



State 


Date of 


Area in Square 


Population 




Admission 


Miles 


1S90 


Alabama . 


1819 


52,250 


1,513,017 


Arizona 


Territory 


113,020 


59,620 


Arkansas . 


1836 


53,850 


1,128,179 


California 


1850 


158,360 


1,208,130 


Colorado . 


1876 


103,925 


412,198 


Connecticut 


O 1 


4,990 


746,258 


Delaware . 


O 


2,050 


168,493 


District of Columbia 





70 


230,392 


Florida 


1845 


58,680 


391,422 


J( 


) means original state. 
445 







446 



APPEXDIX II 



State 

Georgia 
Idaho 
Illinois 
Indiana 
Indian Terrifcov 
Iowa . 
Kansas 
Kentucky . 
Louisiana . 
Maine 
Maryland . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan . 
Minnesota 
Mississippi 
Missouri . 
Montana . 
Nebraska . 
Nevada 

New Hampshin 
New Jersey 
New Mexico 
New York 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Ohio 

Oklahoma . 
Oregon 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Utah . 
Vermont . 
Virginia . 
Washington 
West Virginia 
Wisconsin 
Wyoming . 



Date of 


Area in Square 


Population 


Admission 


Miles 


1S90 





59,175 


1,837,353 


1890 


81,800 


81,385 


1818 


56,650 


3,826,351 


1816 


36,350 


2,192,101 


Territory 


31,100 


186.190 


1815 


56,025 


1.911,896 


1S61 


82,080 


1,127,096 


1792 


. 40,100 


1,858,635 


1812 


18.720 


1.118,587 


1820 


33,010 


661,086 





12,210 


1,012,390 





8,315 


2,500,183 


1837 


58,915 


2,093,889 


1858 


83,365 


1,301.826 


1817 


46,810 


1,289,600 


1S21 


69,115 


2,679,181 


1889 


116,080 


132,159 


1867 


77.510 


1,058,910 


1861 


110,700 


45,761 





9,305 


376,530 





7,815 


1,411.933 


Territory 


122,580 


153,593 





49,170 


5,997,853 





52,250 


1,617,917 


1889 


. 70,795 


182,719 


1802 


41.060 


3,672.316 


Territory 


39,030 


61,831 


1859 


96,030 


313,767 





45,215 


5,258.011 





1,250 


315,51)6 





30,570 


1,151.119 


18S9 


77,650 


328,808 


1796 


42,050 


1,767.518 


1815 


265,780 


2,235,523 


1891 


84,970 


207,905 


1791 


9,565 


332.422 





42,150 


1,655,980 


1889 


69,1S0 


319,390 


1863 


21.780 


762,791 


1818 


58,010 


1,686,880 


1S90 


97,890 


60,705 



AREAS AND POPULATIONS 



447 



ESTIMATED AREA AND POPULATION OF SOME OF THE 
SECTIONS DESCRIBED IN THE TEXT * 



Name 




Area 


Population 


Date 


Alaska 


577,390 


31,795 


1890 


Bahama Islands . 




5,450 


47,565 


1891 


British Honduras (Belize) 




7,562 


31,471 


1891 


Canada 




3,315,047 


4,829,411 


1891 


Costa Rica . 




22,996 


243,205 


1892 


Cuba .... 




41,655 


1,631,687 


1890 


Guam .... 






8,561 


1887 


Guatemala . 




49,000 


1,364,678 


1893 


Haiti (island) 




28,250 


1,380,000 




Hawaii 




4,210 


17,034 


1878 


Hawaiian Islands 




6,640 


102,020 


1897 


Honduras . 




46,400 


380,000 


1893 


Jamaica 




4,200 


649,524 


1892 


Luzon .... 




40,875 


3,442,941 


1887 


Mexico 




767,005 


12,636,887 


1895 


Newfoundland . 




42,200 


203,500 


1892 


Nicaragua . 




49,000 


360,000 


1894 


Philippine Islands 




114,326 


7,000,000 


1897 


Porto Rico . 




3,550 


806,708 


1890 


St. Thomas . 




32 


12,019 


1890 


San Salvador 




8,300 


777,895 


1891 


Santa Cruz . 




84 


19,783 


1890 


Tutuila 




55 






United States (not including Alaska, 








etc.) 


3,025,600 


76,000,000 


1899 


United States (including Alaska 








Philippine Islands, etc.) 




3,770,000 


83,000,000 


1899 



POPULATION OF THE FIFTEEN LARGEST CITIES OF 
THE COUNTRY 



City 

l; New York, N. Y. 

2. Chicago, 111. . 

3. Philadelphia, Pa. 

4. St. Louis, Mo. 

5. Boston, Mass. 

6. Baltimore, Md. 

7. Cincinnati, (). 

8. Cleveland, O. 

9. Buffalo, N. Y. 









Estimated 


1800 


1830 


1890 


1899 


60,489 (1) 


197,112 (1) 


1,515,301 (1) 


3,549,558 




4,470(1840) 


1,099,850 (2) 


1,950,000 


41,220 (2) 


80,462 (3) 


1,046,964 (3) 


1,350,000 


10,049 (1S20) 


14,125 


451,770 (4) 


623,000 


24,937 (4) 


61,392 (4) 


448,477 (5) 


530,000 


26,514 (3) 


80,620 (2) 


434,439 (6) 


500,000 


2,540 (1810) 


24,831 (7) 


296,908 (S) 


405,000 


606 (1820) 


1,076 


261.353 (9) 


400,000 


2,095(1820) 


S,66S 


255,664 (10) 


400,000 



448 



APPENDIX II 



City 

10. San Francisco. Cal. 

11. Detroit, Mich. 

12. Pittsburg, Pa. 
lo. New Orleans, La. 

14. Washing-ton. D. U. 

15. Milwaukee. Wis. 











Estimated 


1800 


1830 




1890 


1S99 
350,1 | | 


1,422 (1S20) 


2,222 




205,876(14) 


350,000 


1,565 


12,56S 




•JS^.OIT (12) 


3 15. in i(J 


1,242 ilSlO) 


29,737 


(6) 


242,039(11) 


300, 


3,210 


1S.S26 




•230.39-2 (13) 


280,000 




1,172 


d-40 1 


•21.4.40? iloi 


280, ) 



POPULATION OF CITIES MENTIONED IX THE TEXT 



Acapulco. Mexico 
Albany. N.Y. . 
Albuquerque, N.M 
Allegheny. Pa. . 
Altoona. Pa. 
Annapolis, Md. 
Ann Arbor. Mich 
Ashland, "Wis. . 
Asheville. X.C. 
Astoria. Or. 
Atlanta. Ga. 
Auburn. Me. 
Auburn. X.Y. . 
Augusta. Ga. 
Augusta, Me. 
Austin, Tex. 
Baltimore. Md. 
Bangor. Me. 
Bar Harbor, Me. 
Bath. Me. . 
Baton Rouge. La. 
Bay City. Mich. 
Berkeley. Cal. . 
Biddeford, Me. . 
Billings. Mont. . 
Binghamton, N.Y 
Birmingham, Ala. 
Boston. Mass. . 
Bradford, Pa. . 
Bridgeport. Conn. 
Brockton, Mass. 
Brooklyn. X.Y. (now 
Brunswick, Ga 
Buffalo. X.Y. 



Estimated Population. Where not 


Census of 


otherwise stated, for .Tan. 1, 1899 


1S90 


5,000 (1897) . 




100,000 


94.923 


10.000 (1897) . 


3,785 


125,000 


1H5.2.87 


42,235 (1897) . 


30.337 




7,604 


! '. 15,000 


9.431 


15.000 


9.956 


15.000 


10.235 


9,000 (1897) . 


6,184 


118,000 


05.533 


12,000 


11.250 


32,000 


25.858 


46,000 (1897) . 


33,300 


11.500 (1897) . 


10.527 


25,000 (1897) . 


14,5*3 5 


500,000 


434.439 


27.000 (1897) . 


19,103 




2,000 




8.723 


12.000 


10.478 


35.000 


27,839 




5.101 


'. 10.000 


14.443 




836 


45.000 


35.005 


60.000 (1897) • 


26.178 


530,000 


448,477 


14.000 (1897) . 


10.514 


75.000 


48.866 


36.000 


27,294 


w part of New York) 

12,000 (1S97) . 


806,343 


8.459 


400.000 


255.664 



POPULATION OF CITIES 



449 



Estimated Population. Where not Census of 


otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1899 1890 


Burlington, Vt. 


19,000 


14,590 


Butte, Mont. 


50,000 


10,723 


Calgary, Canada 


3,876 (1891) 




Calumet, Mich. 


7,000 (1898) 


'. 1,159 


Cambridge, Mass. 


89,276 


70,028 


Camden, N.J. . 


65,000 


58,313 


Charleston, S.C. 


65,000 


54,955 


Charlotte, N.C. . 


25,000 


11,557 


Charlottetown, Canada 


11,374 (1891) 




Chattanooga, Term. . 


40,000 


29,100 


Chelsea, Mass. . . 


33,500 


27,909 


Chester, Pa. 


35,000 


20,226 


Cheyenne, Wyo. 


12,000 


11,690 


Chicago, 111. 


1,950,000 


. 1,099,850 


Cincinnati, 0. . 


405,000 


296,908 


Cleveland, 0. . 


400,000 


261,353 


Colon, Colombia 


3000 




Colorado Springs, Colo. 


25,000 


11,140 


Columbia, S.C. . 


23,000 (1S97) 


15,353 


Columbus, Ga. . 


20,000 


17,303 


Columbus, 0. . 


135,000 


88,150 


Concord, N.H. . 


17,000 


17,004 


Council Bluffs, la. 


30,000 


21,474 


Covington, Ky. . 


50,000 


37,371 


Cripple Creek, Colo. . 


12,000 




Dallas, Tex. 


50,000 


38,067 


Danville, Va. 


20,000 (1897) 


10,305 


Davenport, la. . 


42,000 


26,872 


Dawson City, Canada 


10,000 


None 


Dayton, 0. . 


85,000 


61,220 


Denver, Colo. . 


165,000 


106,713 


Des Moines, la. 


70,000 


50,093 


Detroit, Mich. . 


350,000 


205,876 


Dover, N.H. 


13,500 


12,790 


Dubuque, la. . 


50,000 


30,311 


Duluth, Minn. . 


60,000 


33,115 


Durham, N.C. . 




5,485 


Elizabeth, N.J. . 


50,000 '. 


37,764 


Elmira, N.Y. . 


42,000 


30,893 


El Paso, Tex. . 


13,000 (1897) 


10,338 


Erie, Pa 


60,000 


40,634 


Evansville, Ind. 


70,000 


50,756 


Fall River, Mass. 


103,000 


74,398 


Findlay, 0. 




18,553 


Fitchburg, Mass. 


29,000 


22,037 



2 G 



450 



APPENDIX II 



Fort Worth, Tex. 
Fredericton, Canada 
Galveston, Tex. 
Gloucester, Mass. 
Grand Rapids, Mich 
Greeley, Colo. . 
Greenville, S.C. 
Guthrie, Oklahoma 
Halifax, Canada 
Hamilton, Bermuda 
Hamilton, Canada 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Hartford, Conn. 
Havana, Cuba . 
Haverhill, Mass. 
Helena, Mont. . 
Hilo, Hawaiian Is. 
Hoboken, N.J. . 
Holyoke, Mass. . 
Honolulu, Hawaiian Is 
Hot Springs, Ark. 
Houston, Tex. . 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Ishpeining, Mich. 
Ithaca, N.Y. 
Jacksonville, Fla. 
Jamestown, N.Y. 
Jefferson City, Mo. 
Jersey City, N.J. 
Joplin, Mo. 
Juneau, Alaska 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Key West, Fla. . 
Kingston, Canada 
Kingston, Jamaica 
Knoxville, Tenn. 
La Crosse, Wis. 
Lancaster, Pa. . 
Laramie, Wyo. 
Lawrence, Mass. 
Leadville, Colo. 
Lewiston, Me. . 
Lexington, Ky. . 
Lincoln, Neb. . 
Little Rock, Ark. 



Estimated Population. Where not 
otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1S99 

35,000 (1897) 
6,502 (1891) 
71,250 
29,000 
100,000 



Census of 
TS90 



11,117 
7,211 

38,556 
1,296 
48,980 
60,000 
75,000 
200,000 
35,000 
14,000 
12,878 
60,000 
46,000 
28,920 



(1897) 
(1S97) 
(1891) 
(1897) 
(1891) 



(1894) 
(1896) 
(1896) 



45,000 (1897) 
200,000 
12,000 (1897) 
13,000 (1897) 
35,000 
26,000 

200,000 
14,000 (1897) 



200,000 
16,502 
19,264 
46,542 
50,000 
30,000 
45,000 
11,690 
58,000 
12,000 
21,800 
32,000 

45,000 



(1895) 
(1891) 
(1891) 
(1897) 



(1897) 



(1897) 
(1897) 



POPULATION OF CITIES 



451 



Estimated Population. Where not 


Census of 


otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1S99 


1890 


Lockport, N.Y. . ' . 


20,000 (1897) . 


16,038 


London, Canada 


31,977 (1891) . 




Los Angeles, Cal. 


115,000 


50,395 


Louisville, Ky. .... 


225,000 


161,129 


Lowell, Mass 


87,000 


77,696 


Lynchburg, Va. 


25,000 


19,709 


Lynn, Mass. .... 


67,000 


55,727 


Macon, Ga. .... 


28,800 (1897) . 


22,746 


Maiden, Mass. .... 


32,000 . . ' . 


23,031 


Manchester, N.H. 


60,000 


44,126 


Manila, Philippine Ts. 


154,062 (1887) . 




Marquette, Mich. 


10,500 


9,093 


Matanzas, Cuba ... 


56,379 (1887) . 




Memphis, Tenn. 


110,000 


64,495 


Meriden, Conn. 


30,000 


21,652 


Mexico City, Mexico 


344,377 (1895) . 




Milwaukee, Wis. 


280,000 


204,468 


Minneapolis, Minn. . 


200,000 


164,738 


Mobile, Ala. 


40,000 


31,076 


Montgomery, Ala. 


45,000 


21,883 


Montreal, Canada 


216,650 (1891) . 




Nashua, N.H. . 


25,000 


19,311 


Nashville, Tenn. 


100,000 


76,168 


Nassau, Bahama . . " . 


11,000 (1891) . 




Natchez, Miss. 


20,000 (1897) . 


10,101 


Newark, N.J. . 


250,000 


181,830 


New Bedford, Mass. • . 


59,000 


40,733 


New Guatemala, Guatemala 


72,102 (1893) . 




New Haven, Conn. . 


115,000 


81,298 


New Orleans, La. 


300,000 


242,039 


Newport, Ky. . 


30,000 (1897) . 


24,918 


Newport, R.I. . 


24,000 


19,457 


Newport News, Va. . 


6,000 (1897) . 


4,449 


New York City, N.Y. 


3,549,558 


1,515,301 


Niagara Falls, N.Y. . 


20,000 (1897) . 


5,502 


Nome City, Alaska . 


3000 (1899) . 




Norfolk, Va. . 


65,000 


34,871 


Norristown, Pa. 


23,000 (1897) . 


19,791 


Oakland, Cal. . 


49,000 (1897) . 


48,682 


Ogden, Utah 


15,828 (1895) . 


14,889 


Oil City, Pa. . 


16.000 


10,932 


Oklahoma, Oklahoma 


7,125 (1897) . 


4,151 


Olean, N.Y. 


14,000 (1897) . 


7,358 


Omaha, Neb. 


160,000 


140,452 


Oshkosh, Wis. . 


30,000 


22,836 



452 



APPENDIX II 



Estimated Population. "Where no' 
otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1S99 



Oswego, N.Y. . 
Ottawa, Canada 
Panama, Colombia 
Paterson, N.J. . 
Pawtucket, R.I. 
Pensacola, Fla. 
Peoria, 111. 
Peterboro, Canada 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Phoenix, Ari. 
Pittsburg, Pa. . 
Pittsfield. Mass. 
Ponce, Porto Rico 
Port Arthur, Canada 
Port au Prince, Haiti 
Portland, Me. . 
Portland, Ore. . 
Portsmouth. N.H. 
Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 
Providence, R.I. 
Province town, Mass. 
Pueblo, Colo. 
Puebla, Mex. 
Quebec, Canada 
Quincy, 111. 
Quincy, Mass. . 
Raleigh, N.C. . 
Reading, Pa. 
Richmond, Va. 
Roanoke, Va. 
Rochester, N.Y. 
Rome, Ga. 
Rutland, Vt. ^ . 
Sacramento, Cal. 
Saginaw, Mich. 
St. Augustine, Fla. 
St. John, Canada 
St. John's, Newfoundland 
St. Joseph, Mo. 
St. Louis, Mo. . 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Salem, Mass. 
Salem, Ore. 
Salt Lake City,^ Utah 
San Antonio, Tex. 



25,000 




44,154 


(1S91) 


30,000 


(1886) 


97,344 


(1895) 


32,577 


(1897) 


16,000 




70,000 




9,717 


(1891) 


1,350,000 




8,000 


(1897) 


315,000 




20,461 


(1895) 


35,000 


(1898) 


2,698 


(1S91) 


60,000 




45,000 




100,000 




11,000 


(1897) 


25,000 




167,000 




4,555 


(1895) 


28,250 


(1897) 


91,917 


(1895) 


63,090 


(1891) 


45,000 




25,000 




14,000 


(1897) 


90,000 




100,000 




23,000 




177,000 




12,000 


(1897) 


35,000 




60,000 




4,151 


(1895) 


39,179 


(1891) 


31,142 


(1892) 


70,000 




623,000 




175,000 




35,000 




14,000 


(1897) 


48,076 


(1895) 


50,000 


(1897) 



Census of 
1890 

21,842 



78.347 
27.633 
11,750 
41,024 

1.046,964 

3,152 

238,617 

17,281 



36,425 
46,385 

9,827 

22,206 

132,146 

4,642 
24,558 



31,494 

16,723 

12,678 

58,661 

81,388 

16.159 

133.896 

6,957 

11,760 

26,386 

46,322 

4,742 



52,324 
451,770 
133,156 
30,801 
10,475 
44,843 
37,673 



POPULATION OF CITIES 



453 







Estimated Population. Where not 


Census of 


otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1899 


1S90 


San Diego, Cal. . . . 23,000 




16,159 


San Francisco, Cal. . 




350,000 




298,997 


San Jose, Cal. . 




25,000 




18,060 


San Juan, Porto Rico 




30,000 


(1898) . 




San Luis Potosi, Mexico 




69,676 


(1895) . 




San Salvador, San Salvadc 


r 


25,000 


(1894) . 




Sante Fe, N. M. 








6,185 


Santiago, Cuba 




71,307 


(1892) '. 




Santo Domingo, Santo Doi 


lingc 


14,150 


(1892) . 




Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 




7,275 


(1897) . 


5,760 


Savannah, Ga. . 




66,000 




43,189 


Schenectady, ]ST.Y. 






29,000 




19,902 


Scran ton, Pa. 






125,000 




75,215 


Seattle, Wash. . 






85,000 




42,837 


Shreveport, La. 






24,000 




11,979 


Sitka, Alaska 










1,190 


Sornerville, Mass. 






60,000 




40,152 


Spokane, Wash. 






45,000 




19,922 


Springfield, Mass. 






57,676 




44,179 


Spriugneid, 0. . 






38,000 




31,895 


Stockton, Cal. . 






20,000 




14,424 


Superior, Wis. . 






30,000 




11,983 


Syracuse, N.Y. . 






130,000 




88,143 


Tacoma, Wash. 






52,000 




36,006 


Tampa, Fla. 






15,634 


(1895) . 


5,532 


Tampico, Mexico 






9,885 


(1894) . 




Taunton, Mass. 






30,000 




25,448 


Toledo, 0. 






145,000 




81,434 


Topeka, Kan. 






35,000 




31,007 


Toronto, Canada 






181,220 


(1891) '. 




Trenton, N.J. . 






62,518 


(1895) . 


57,458 


Troy, N.Y. 






65,000 




60,956 


Tucson, Ari. 










5,150 


Upernivik, Greenland 




700 


(1870) ! 




Utica, N.Y. 




60,000 




44,007 


Vancouver, Canada . 




13,685 


(1891) .' 

(1895) . 




Vera Cruz, Mexico 






88,993 




Vicksburg, Miss. 






20,000 




13,373 


Victoria, Canada 






16,841 


(1891) '. 




Virginia City, Nev. 










8,511 


Waltham, Mass. 






22,200 




18,707 


Washington, D.C. 






280,000 




230,392 


Waterbury, Conn. 






38,000 




28,646 


Watertown, N.Y. 






22,000 


(1897) ! 


14,725 


Wheeling, W. Va. 






40,000 


(1897) . 


34,522 



454 



APPENDIX II 







Estimated 


'opulation. 


Where 


not 


Census of 


otherwise stated, for Jan. 1, 1S99 1890 


Wichita, Kan 24,000 23,853 


Wilkes Barre, Pa. 






57,000 




37,718 


Williamsport, Pa. 






35,000 




27,132 


Wilmington, Del. 






70,000 




61,431 


Windsor, Canada 






10,322 (1891) 






Winnipeg. Canada 






38,100 (1895) 






Winona, Minn. . 






25,000 




18,208 


Woonsocket, R.I. 






26,000 




20,830 


Worcester, Mass. 






105,000 




84,655 


Yarmouth, Canada 






6,089 (1891) 






Yonkers, N.Y. . 






45,000 




32,033 


PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES FROM WHICH OUR FOREIGN 


BORN POPULATION HAS COME 


Country of Birth Number in 1890 


Germany . . 2,784,894 


Ireland .... 








1,871,509 


Canada and Newfoundland 








980,938 


England .... 








909.092 


Sweden .... 








478,041 


Norway .... 








322,665 


Scotland .... 








242,231 


Russia .... 








182,644 


Italy .... 








182,580 


Poland .... 








147,440 


Total of foi 


eign 


born 


popii] 


ation 






9,249,547 



DISTRIBUTION OF NEGROES IN THE FIFTEEN STATES 
WHERE THEY ARE MOST NUMEROUS 











Percentage of 




Number of Negroes Negroes to total population 


States 


in 1890 1S90 


1. Georgia . 


858,815 .... 46.74 


2. Mississippi 


742,559 








57.58 


3. South Carolina 


688,934 








59.85 


4. Alabama . 


678,489 








44.84 


5. Virginia . 


635,438 








38.37 


6. North Carolina 


561,018 








34.67 


7. Louisiana 


559,193 








49.99 


8. Texas 


488,171 








21.84 


9. Tennessee 


430,678 








24.37 



I2IP0RTS AND EXPORTS 



455 



States 

10. Arkansas . 

11. Kentucky 

12. Maryland 

13. Florida . 

14. Missouri . 

15. Pennsylvania 





Percentage of 


umber of Negroes 


Negroes to tota! 


population 


in 1390 


1890 




309,117 




27.40 


268,071 




14.42 


215,657 




20.69 


166,180 




42.46 


150,184 




5.61 


107,596 




2.05 



Total number of Negroes in 1890, 7,470,040. 



FIVE LEADING EXPORTS OF UNITED STATES 

Articles Value, 1898 



Breadstuffs (including wheat, corn, flour, etc.) 
Cotton (manufactured and unmanufactured) 
Provisions (including meat and dairy products) 
Iron, steel, and manufacture of 

Mineral oils 

Total value of exports, 1898 



$333,897,119 

247,466,307 

167,340,960 

70,406,885 

56,125,578 

1,231,482,330 



TEN LEADING IMPORTS OF UNITED STATES 

Value, 189S 



Articles 

Coffee . . i 
Sugar and molasses . 
Silk .."..-. 
Chemicals, drugs, etc. 
Hides and skins 



Principal Countries from which 
they come 



©ck nc- oqi S Brazil, other South American 
' ' I countries, Last Indies. 

61 043 898 .1 Brazil, Hawaiian Islands, 
' ' ( East and West Indies. 

55 633 731 i '^ a P an ' France, Italy, Ger- 
' ' ' I many. 

di A7n 773 S Germany, East Indies, Great 

* A >*'- U >"*} Britain. 

37 068 Q3^ ^ South America, Great Brit- 



I 



ain, France. 



Vegetable fibres and man- ) QK Q/iK nQA ( Great Britain, East Indies, 

utactures ot . . . ) ' ' ^ Mexico. 

Cotton and manufactures \_ go osfi 80° .5 Great Britain, Germany, 

of \ ' ' ° l France. 

Wool and manufactures f -i ^7 ^ fi g f Great Britain, Germany, 

Of . . . * ''") TTvavir»o 



( France. 
26,011,635 Brazil, Great Britain. 



Rubber and manufactures 

of , 

Fruits and nuts . . 14,566,950 West Indies, Italy. 

Total value of imports, 1898 $616,049,654 



456 



APPESD1X II 



FIVE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES TO WHICH ENPORTS 
FROM THE UNITED STATES ARE SENT 

Country Value, 1898 Principal Materials 

Great Britain $511,778,705 Cattle, corn, wheat, flour, cotton, oil. 

Germany 155,772,179 Corn, cotton, oil, lard. 

Canada 89,578,475 Corn, wheat, coal. 

Netherlands 79,305,998 Corn, wheat, flour, coffee. 

France 60.596,899 Corn, wheat, cotton, oil. 



SOME OF THE LARGE RIVERS 



Name 

Mississippi (including Missouri) 

Missouri 

St. Lawrence 

Mackenzie 

Arkansas 

Yukon . 

Colorado 

Rio Grande . 

Nelson-Saskatchew; 

Columbia 

Ohio 

Platte . 

Connecticut . 

James 

Potomac 

Sacramento . 

Susquehanna 

Delaware 

Hudson . 

Penobscot 



Approximate 


Approximate 




Length in 


Basin Area 


Ocean 


Miles 


Square Miles 




4.300 


1,257,000 


Atlantic 


3,000 


527,155 


Atlantic 


2,200 


530,000 


Atlantic 


2,000 


590,000 


Arctic 


2,170 


185,671 


Atlantic 


2,000 


440,000 


Pacific 


2,000 


225,049 


Pacific 


1,800 


240,000 


Atlantic 


1,732 


432.000 . 


Atlantic 


1,400 


216,537 


Pacific 


975 


20], 720 


Atlantic 


900 


90,011 


Atlantic 


450 


11,269 


Atlantic 


450 


9,684 


Atlantic 


400 


14.479 


Atlantic 


400 


58,824 


Pacific 


400 


27.655 


Atlantic 


300 


12,012 


Atlantic 


300 


13,366 


Atlantic 


300 


8,934 


Atlantic 



SOME FACTS (APPROXIMATE) CONCERNING THE 
LARGEST LAKES 



Superior 
Huron 



Length in Greatest Breadth Area in 
Miles in Miles Square Miles 



390 
270 



160 
105 



30,829 
22.322 



Greatest 
Depth 

1,008 
750 



Eleva- 
tion 

602 

bS-2 



ELEVATION OF MOUNTAIN PEAKS 



457 





Length in 


Greatest Breadth Area in 


Greatest 


Eleva- 


Name 


Miles 


in Miles 


Square Miles 


Depth 


tion 


Michigan 


335 


85 


21,729 


870 


582 


Great Bear 


175 


45 


11,200 






Great Slave 


300 


80 


10,100 






Erie 


246 


58 


9,900 


210 


573 


Winnipeg . 


260 


65 


9,400 




710 


Ontario 


190 


55 


7,104 


738 


247 


Manitoba 


122 


24 


1,850 




810 


Nicaragua . 


92 


34 




83 


110 


Champlain . 


125 


10 




280 


101 



Mt. McKinley, Alaska (highest known on continent) 

Mt. St. Elias, Alaska 

Mt. Logan, Canada (highest known in Canada) 

Mt. Hooker, Canada ..... 

San Francisco Mountain, Arizona . 

Mt. Whitney, California (highest in the West) 

Mt. Shasta, California 

Pikes Peak, Colorado 



ELEVATION OF SOME OF THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN 

PEAKS 

Height in Feet 

20,464 

18,100 

19,539 

13,500 

12,794 

14,898 

14,380 

14,108 

11,225 

14,526 

13,790 

6,711 

6,293 

5,344 

5,200 

3,186 

18,314 

17,798 

8,600 

3,609 

7,360 

10,300 

13,805 

13,675 

10,312 

8,900 



Mt. Hood, Oregon 

Mt. Ranier, Washington 

Fremont Peak, Wyoming 

Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina (highest in East) 

Mt. Washington, New Hampshire (highest in Nor 

Mt. Marcy, New York . . . 

Mt. Katahdin, Maine 

Mt. Monadnock, New Hampshire . 

Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico) 

Popocatepetl, Mexico 

Pico del Turquino, Cuba 

Yunque, Porto Rico 

Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica. 

Mt. Tina, Haiti .... 

Mauna Kea, Hawaii 

Mauna Loa, Hawaii 

Apo, Mindanao Island, Philippines. 

Mayon, Luzon Island, Philippines . 



theast) 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 

a, as in fat; a, as in fate; a, as in far; a, as in fall; e, as 
in pen; e, as -in mete; e, as in her; i, as in pin; I, as in pine ; o, as in 
not; 5, as in note; o, as in move; u, as in tub; u, as in mute; u, as in 
pull; g, as in get; g, as in gem; c, as in cat; 9, as in cent. 

A double dot under a, e, or (a, e, o) indicates that its sound is short- 
ened to that of u in but. 

Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the 
accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 



A-ca-pul'-co, 388. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 162. 

A-ga'-ve, 382. 

Agriculture, 139, 164, 208, 238, 296, 

332, 339, 346, 362, 381, 391, 394- 

400, 406. 
Al-a-ba'-ma, 158, 202, 207, 218, 221, 

232, 409, 413. 
A-las'-ka, 52, 318, 323, 359, 360, 

361, 424. 
Al'-ba-ny (ni), 161, 178, 181, 185. 
Al-ber'-ta, 352, 362. 
Albuquerque (al-bo-ker'-ke), 306. 
Aleutian (a-lu'-shun) Islands, 325. 
Allegheny (al'-e-ga-na), 170, 178, 

220, 275. 
Al-too'-na, 178. 
An-dros-cog'-^in, 130. 
Animals of North America, 76-92. 



A?i-nap'-o-lis, 195. 
Ann Ar'-bor, 268. 
Antarctic (an-tark'-tik) Circle, 35. 
Anthracite coal, 4, 171. 
An-til'-les (lez), 393. 
Anti-trade Winds, 42. 
Apia (a'-pe-a), 341. 
Ap-pa-lach'-i-an Mountains, 6, 157, 

202, 234. 
Arctic (ark'-tik) Circle, 35. 
Ar-i-zo'-na, 49, 285, 286, 288, 293, 

305, 308, 310, 319, 415. 
Ar'-kan-sas (saw), 205, 221, 232. 
Ashc'-vilZe, 205. 
Ash'-land, 257. 
As-sin-i-boi'-a, 352, 362. 
As-to'-ri-a, 316. 
Ath-a-bas'-ca, 352. 
At-lan'-ta, 207, 220, 222, 227. 



459 



460 



INDEX 



At-lan'-tic. 22. 

Auburn (a'-bern), Me.. 130, 144. 

Auburn (a'-bern), X. Y., 169. 179. 

Aw-gus'-ta, Ga., 222. 

Att-gus'-ta, Me., 130. 132. 144. 

Aws'-tin, 229. 

Az'-tecs (teks), 94, 98, 380, 388. 

Ba-ha'-inas, 71, 393, 398. 
Bal'-ti-more, 163, 168, 178. 193. 247. 

301, 418, 422, 426. 
Bananas, 204, 333, 345, 384. 390. 

391. 393, 395. 
Ban'-gor, 130, 132, 163. 
Bar-ba'-does (doz), 396. 
Bar Harbor, 139, 154. 
Barley, 247, 296, 363, 364. 
Barrens, 78. 356. 
Bath. 131. 

Bat'-on Rouge (robzh), 228. 
Bay City, 254. 
Belize (be-lez'), 391. 
Bellows Falls (bel'-oz) , 143. 
Belt of Calms, 45. 
Be'-ring Sea, 325. 
Berkeley (berk'-li), 314. 
Berk'-shire Hills, 126, 152. 
Ber-mu'-das, 71, 338, 399. 
Bid'-(7e-ford, 144. 
Billings (bil'-ingz), 298, 303, 305. 
Bing'-ftarn-ton, 178, 180. 
Bir'-ming-ham (Ber), 218, 219, 228. 
Bis'-mark (biz), Fig. 178. 
Bituminous coal, 5, 170, 256. 
Blast furnace, 176. 
Blizzards. 246. 
Bluefields (blo'-feldz), 391. 
Boise (boi'-ze). Fig. 211. 
Bos'-ton, 136, 143, 149. 150, 185, 

193, 228. 348. 422. 426. 430. 



Brad'-ford, 173. 

Bricks, 180, 260. 

Bridge'-port, 147. 

British Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), 352, 

354, 355, 357, 359, 362, 365. 
British Hon-du'-ras (do), 390. 
Brock'-ton, 145, 267. 
Brook'-lyn (lin), 181, 187. 
Brunswick (brunz'-wik), 207. 
Buf'-fa-lo, 173, 177, 181, 182, 184, 

185, 186. 192, 258, 262, 265, 418. 
Bur'-ling-ton (ber), 149. 
Butte (but), 292, 293, 312, 348. 

Cal'-ga-ry (ri), 363. 

Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 49, 52. 71. 102. 168, 
281, 282, 283, 285, 286, 289, 290, 
294. 297, 299, 300, 301, 302, 311, 
314, 320, 329, 409. 414, 431. 

Cal'-u-met, 259. 

Cam'-brkZge, 149, 151. 

Cam'-den, 178, 191. 192. 

Can'-a-da, 351, 404, 406, 424, 425. 

Canals, 182, 238. 

Can'-ger, Tropic of, 34. 

Canning Fruit. 168, 301. 

Cape Breton (brif'-on), 366. 

Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic of, 36. 

Car-i/j-be'-an, 380, 393. 

Carlisle (kar-lil'), 104. 

Cas-cade' Ranges, 283. 

Cas'-sel-ton, 246. " 

Cats'-kil?s, 164. 

Cattle Ranching, 217, 248, 302, 362. 
384, 415. 

Cave dwellings, 307, 308. 

Caverns, 242. 

Cayuga Lake (ka-yo'-ga). 191. 

Qen'-tral Amer'-i-ca. 389, 404. 425. 

Central States. 234. 



INDEX 



461 



Century Plant, 383. 
Chain-plain' (sham), Lake, 149. 
Charles'-ton (charlz), S. C, 207, 

213, 219, 228. 
Charlotte (shar'-lot), 222. 
Charlottetown, 364. 
Chat-ta-noo'-ga, 218, 220, 222, 228. 
Chautauqua (sha-ta'-kwa), Grape 

Belt, 167. 
Chel'-sea (si), 149. 
Ches'-a-peake, 20, 161, 163, 193. 
Ches'-ter, 191. 
Cheyenne (shl-en'), 298. 
Chi-ca'-go (she), 181, 215, 223, 227, 

247, 251, 254, 258, 262-268, 269, 

271, 273, 418, 419, 420, 422, 424. 
Cin-ci?/,-na'-ti, 247, 260, 269, 275. 
Circle City, 330. 
Cities, 405, 418. 
City Life, 189. 
Clays, 180, 260. 
Cleve'-land, 181, 258, 265, 268. 
Cliff Dwellings, 306, 307. 
Climate of North America, 76. 
Coal, 3, 170, 218, 255, 288, 291, 293, 

328, 365, 412. 
Coal Period, 3. 
Coastal Plains, 158, 200. 
Coast Ranges, 283. 
Coch'-i-nefll, 384. 
Co'-coa, 333, 345, 346, 391. 
Cocoanuts, 204, 217, 333, 345, 346. 
Cod, 137, 325, 358, 417. 
Coffee, 333, 339, 346, 384, 391, 426. 
Colleges, 151, 191. 
CQ-lon', 392. 
Col-o-ra'-do, 283, 290, 291, 292, 293, 

298, 312, 319, 381, 414, 415. 
Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 6, 310. 
Colorado Plateau, 285, 288. 



Colorado Springs, 312. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) Plateau, 285. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), 222. 
Co-lum'-bus, Ga., 222. 
Columbus, Ohio, 276. 
Commerce, 421. 
Concord (kong'-kord), 133. 
Con-nect'-i-cut, 147, 149, 156, 308, 

331. 
Continental Shelf, 20. 
Copper, 258, 288, 291, 292, 332, 

413, 415. 
Coral Islands, 71, 204, 398, 399. 
Cor-dil-ler'-as, 6. 
Corn, 92, 93, 217, 243, 364, 381, 

406, 407. 
Costa Pica (kos'-ta re'-ka), 390, 

391. 
Cotton, 209, 384, 408, 409. 
Cotton Gin, 221. 

Cotton Manufacturing, 143, 220, 419. 
Coun'-cil Bluffs, 275. 
Country, 238, 405, 406. 
Cov'-ing-ton, 275. 
Crip'-ple Creek, 292. 
Cu'-ba, 43, 214, 228, 330-336, 337, 

379, 394, 410, 424. 
Cyclonic Storms, 53. 

Dairying, 164, 411, Fig. 336. 
Dal'-Zas, 229. 
Dan'-viUe, 166. 
Dav'-en-port, 273. 
Daw'-son City, 330, 365. 
Day'-ton, 275. 

Del'-a-ware, 167, 178, 191, 198. 
Del'-a-ware Bay, 20. 
Del'-a-ware River, 159. 
Den'-ver, 189, 292, 297, 298, 312, 
421. 



462 



INDEX 



Dependencies of United States, 322. 
Deserts, 47, 49, 286, 299. 
Des Moines (de-moin'), 273. 
De-troit', 181, 258, 268, 269, 370, 

421. 
District of Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a), 195. 
Do'-ver, 145. 
Drift, 16. 

Dubuque (do-buk'), 273. 
Duluth (do-looth'), 181, 223, 247, 

254, 257, 261, 265, 368, 370, 418. 
Dur/i'-am, 209, 222. 

Elevators, 265. 

E-liz'-a-beth, 180. 

El-ml'-ra, 178. 

El Pa' -so, 229. 

Equatorial Drift, 64. 

E'-qui-nox (kwi), 36. 

E'-rie, 178, 192. 

E'-rie Canal, 181, 182, 187. 

E-rieLake, 167, 181. 

Es'-ki-mos (moz), 26, 92, 100, 356, 

372-376. 
Ev'-ans-vilZe (anz), 276. 
Exports, 426. 

Fall Line, 158, 200. 

Fan River, 145, 147. 

Farming (see Agriculture).- 

Fear, Cape, 203. 

Fishing, 136, 163, 316, 325, 358, 

417. 
Fiicli'-burg (berg), 147. 
Flax, 364. 
Flor'-i-da, 4, 21, 49, 71, 204, 206, 

207, 216, 217, 219, 223, 228, 232, 

333, 424. 
Flour-mills, 271. 
Fort Worth, 229. 



Fred'-er-ic-ton, 357. 
French, 98, 100, 226, 351, 352, 368. 
Fruits, 166, 204, 216, 241, 296, 299- 
302, 333, 339, 381, 384, 395, 411. 
Fur seals, 327. 

Gal'-ves-ton, 189, 229, 426. 
Geor'-gi-a, 207, 217, 219, 220, 222, 

228, 231, 409. 
Gey'-sers (gi), 309. 
Gla'-cier (shier), 12, 324, 375. 
Gloucester (glos'-ter), 133, 136, 137, 

348. 
Gold, 219, 260, 281, 285, 288-293, 

328-330, 345, 365, 386, 391, 414. 
Grand Rap'-ids, 254. 
Granite, 133, 219, 255. 
Grapes, 167, 241, 296, 301, 364, 

381, 411. 
Gravitation, 30. 
Grazing (see Ranching). 
Great Basin, 285, 287. 
Great Ice Age, 12. 
Great Lakes, 16, 160, 236, 241, 355, 

364, 428. 
Great Plains, 248, 283, 354. 
Great Salt Lake, 299. 
Gree'-ley (li), 298. 
Green'-land, 13, 374-376. 
Green Mountains, 126, 152. 
Gre>n'-vil7e, 222. 
Green'-joich, 113. 

Guadalajara (gwa-da-la-ha'-ra) , 388. 
G?<a-de-lo?(pe', 397, 398. 
Guam (gwam), 340, 341. 
Gwa-te-ma'-la, 390, 391. 
Gulf of Mex'-i-co, 10, 393. 
Gulf Stream, 60, 69, 71, 127, 161, 

204, 367, 398, 
Guth'-n'e, 230. 



INDEX 



463 



Haiti (ha'-ti), 331, 379, 395. 
Halibut, 137, 325. 
Hal'-i-fax, 358, 371. 
Ham'-il-ton, Canada, 370. 
Ham'-il-ton, Bermuda, 400. 
Hamp'-ton, 104, 106. 
Har'-ris-burg (berg), 178, 191. 
Hart'-ford, 147. 
Hat'-Zer-as, Cape, 203. 
Ha-van'-a, 333, 334, 335. 
Ha'-ver-MZ, 145, 267. 
Hawaiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 

214, 315, 336-340, 341, 410, 424. 
Hel'-e-na, 290, 292. 
Hemp, 346. 
Hilo (he'-lo), 339. 
Ho'-bo-ken, 178, 180, 186. 
Hogs, 217, 240, 245, 266, 273, 

411. 
Hol'-yoke, 132. 
Hon-du'-ras (do), 390, 391. 
Ho-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo), 339, 340. 
Hood, Mt., 285. 
Horse Latitudes, 49. 
Horses, 242, 364, 416. 
Hot Springs, 205. 
Hous'-ton, 229. 
Hud'-son Bay, 366. 
Hud'-son River, 161, 181, 184-186. 
Hu'-ron, Lake, 262, 263. 
Hur'-ri-cane, 56. 

Iceberg, 13, 69, 376. 

I'-da-ho, 52, 285, 293, 320, 415. 

Illinois (il-i-noi'), 170, 236, 245, 

252, 263, 273, 278, 405, 407, 411, 

412, 415, 416, 419, 420. 
Immigrants, 106. 
Imports, 426. 
Inclination of Earth's Axis, 29. 



In'-di-ans, 92, 93, 100, 103, 229, 306, 

380, 396. 
Indian Reservations, 103. 
Indian Territory, 203, 229, 230, 233. 
In-di-an'-a, 170, 236, 245, 252, 255, 

276, 278, 408. 
In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 189, 276. 
I'-o-wa, 252, 260, 273, 279, 407, 409, 

411, 412, 415, 416. 
Iron Manufacturing, 147, 175, 220, 

312, 368, 419. 
Iron Ore, 174, 218, 256, 291, 332, 

365, 386, 413. 
Irrigation, 297-302, 381, 387. 
Ish'-pem-ing, 256. 
I -s5-therms, 74. 
Ith-a-ca, 163, 191. 

Jack'-spn-vilZe, 205, 207, 219, 348. 

Jamaica (ja-ma'-ka), 331, 394. 

James'-town, 180. 

Jap-a-nese' Current, 68. 

Jef'-/er-spn City, 275. 

Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 178, 180, 186, 

187, 275. 
Jop'-lin, 260. 
Juneau (Jo-no'), 328. 

Kan'-sas (zas), 248, 252, 260, 275, 

279, 298, 408, 415, 424. 
Kan'-sas (zas) City, 223, 251, 273. 
Ka-ta/i'-din, Mt., 126, 128, 152. 
Ken-rce-bec', 130. 
Ken-tuck'-y, 217, 234, 236, 238, 242, 

275, 276, 278, 341. 
Key West, 73, 223, 333. 
King'-ston, Canada, 370. 
King'-stpn, Jamaica, 394. 
Klon'-dike, 329, 365. 
JTnox'-viUe, 219, 220. 



464 



INDEX 



Lab-ra-dor' (door), 19, 352. 
Labrador Current, 66, 69, 127, 161, 

361, 367. 
Lachine (La-shen') Rapids, 367. 
La Crosse, 254, 273. 
La-drone', 341. 
Lan'-cas-ter (lang), 169. 
Lar'-a-mie, 298. 
La Sal/e', 99. 
Laf-i-tu.de, 111. 
Lawrence (la'-rens), 145. 
Lead, 260, 288, 291, 293, 386. 
Lead'-viUe, 291, 292. 
Leather Manufacturing, 145. 
Lemons, 204, 216, 299. 
Leon (la-on'), 387. 
Lesser An-til'-les (lez), 397. 
Levee (le-ve' or lev'-i), 226. 
Lew'-is-ton (lu). 130, 144. 
Lexington (lek'-sing-ton), 242. 
Limestone, 175, 219, 255. 
Lincoln (ling'-kon), 275. 
Little Rock, 222" 228. 
LZa'-no Es-ta-ca'-do, Fig. 153. 
Lock'-port, 183, 184, 186. 
Lon'-don, 370. 
Longitude (lon'-gi-tiid), 113. 
Lookout (luk'-out), Cape, 203. 
Los An'-ge-les, 281, 288, 299, 301, 

314, 316. 
Louisiana (16-e-zi-an'-a) , 213, 214, 

221, 232, 332, 410. 
Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 189,237,242, 

245, 276, 421. 
Low'-elZ, 145, 147. 
Low Pressure Areas, 52. 
Lumbering, 127, 162, 205, 252, 293, 

328, 331, 346, 356, 385, 391, 395, 

416, 417. 
Lu-zon' (15), 341, 348. 



Lynchburg (linch'-berg), 166. 
Lynn (lin), 145, 267. 

McKinley, (ma-kin'-li) Mt., 324. 

Mac-ken'-zie River, 354. 

Mackerel, 137. 

Ma'-con, 207, 222. 

Maguey (ma-gwa'), 382. 

Mame, 126, 128, 131, 132, 133, 136, 

139, 144, 148, 152, 154, 162, 163, 

253, 294, 356, 359, 417, 424. 
Ma-lays', 344. 
Mal'-den, 149. 
Mam'-moth Cave, 243. 
Man'-ches-ter, 144, 149. 
Man-hat'-<an Island, 187. 
Ma-nil'-a, 341, 346, 348. 
Man-i-to-ba', 352, 356, 363. 
Manufacturing, 141, 175-180, 219, 

346, 368, 389 (also all large cities) , 

418, 419. 
Marble, 135, 219, 386. 
Marquette (mar-kef), 99, 257. 
Mar'-thas (thaz) Vine'-yard, 126, 

154. 
Mar-ti-nique' (nek), 397. 
Maryland (mer'-i-land), 167, 178, 

193, 198. 
Mas-sa-clvu'-setts, 132, 133, 136, 

145, 147, 155, 191, 267, 419, 420. 
Ma-tan'-zas, 335. 
Mau'-na Lo'-a, 336. 
Mem'-phis (fis), 207, 222, 226, 227. 
■ 420. 

Mer'-i-den, 147. 
Mer'-ri-mac River, 145. 
Metal Manufacturing (see also iron 
• manufacturing), 146. 
Mex'-i-co, 229, 378, 404, 406, 425. 
Mex'-i-co City, 380, 387. 



INDEX 



465 



Mex'-i-co, Gulf of, 10, 393. 
Mich'-i-gan (mish), 242, 252, 254, 
256, 258, 260, 268, 278, 294, 413, 
417. 
Mich'-i-gan (mish), Lake, 262, 263. 
Middle Atlantic States, 157. 
Milk, 140, 164, 240, 411. 
Mil-waw'-kee, 247, 267, 268, 421. 
Min-da-na'-o (men), 341. 
Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 270. 
Mining, 169, 218, 254, 282, 288, 
328, 332, 345, 365, 386, 391, 
412. 
Min-ne-ap'-o-lis, 247, 253, 265, 271, 

363, 418, 421, 424. 
Min-rce-so'-ta, 16, 72, 236, 245, 252, 
254, 258, 261, 271, 273, 279, 363, 
408, 413. 
Miquelon (mek'-lon), 352. 
Mis-sis-sip'-j)i Eiver, 9, 200, 234, 

237, 428. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi, State, 221, 232, 409. 
Mis-sow'-ri, 234, 242, 260, 273, 275, 

279, 405, 407, 411. 
Mis-so««'-ri River, 273. 
Mi«ch'-elZ, Mt., 202. 
Mo-bile' (bel), 207, 222, 371. 
Mo'-hawk River, 159. 
Mo-nad'-nock, Mt., 126, 153. 
Mon-soon', 40, 343, 380. 
Mon-ta'-na, 52, 290, 292, 293, 298, 
303, 319, 354, 363, 414, 416, 424. 
Mont-gom'-e-ry, 207, 222. 
Mont-re-al', 101, 262, 352, 358,367, 

368, 369, 371, 422. 
Moose'-head Lake, 152. 
Mo-rai'ne', 15. 
Mor'-mons, 299. 
Mo'-ros, 347. 
Muir Glacier, 324. 

2h 



Nan-tuck'-et, 126, 154. 

Nar-ra-gan'-seta Bay, 154. 

Nash'-u-a, 144. 

Nash'-vilZe, 228. 

Nas'-saw, 398. 

Nat'-chez, 228. 

Natural Gas, 173, 255, 413. 

Ne-bras'-ka, 252, 273, 275, 279, 298, 

407. 
Negritos (ne-gre'-toz), 344. 
Negroes, 104, 209, 213, 396. 
Ne-va'-da, 285, 286, 287, 290, 291, 

306, 319, 414. 
New'-ark, 178, 180. 
New Bed'-ford, 145, 147. 
New Bruns'-wick, 352, 356, 357, 

358, 365, 371. 
New Eng'-land (ing') States, 124. 
New'-found-land, 19, 71, 351, 352, 

357, 358, 361, 424. 
New Gtta-te-ma'-la, 391. 
New Hamp'-shire, 126, 128, 133, 

144, 149, 152, 155, 202, 356. 
New Ha'-ven, 147, 149. 
New Jersey (jer'-zi), 160, 167, 174, 

178-181, 186, 187, 191, 197, 419. 
New Mex'-i-co, 49, 281, 293, '305, 

306, 307, 308, 319, 380, 416. 
New Or'-le-ans, 99, 101, 213, 215, 

222, 223-227, 229, 237, 316, 420, 

421, 426. 
Newport, (nu'-port), Ky., 275. 
Newport, (nu'-port), R. I., 154. 
Newport (nu'-port) News, 162. 
New York City, 73, 99, 178, 180- 

191, 193, 223, 227, 247, 262, 265, 

275, 291, 314, 371, 393, 418, 419, 

421, 422, 430. 
New York State, 132, 158, 160, 161, 

163-169, 173, 174, 177, 179, 180, 



466 



INDEX 



184, 191, 192, 197, 241, 255, 

370, 375, 405, 409, 411, 415, 

419, 420. 
Nl-ag'-a-ra Falls, 17, 160, 186. 
Nic-a-nV-gua (gwa), 390. 
Nic-a-ra'-gua Canal, 392. 
Nome City, 330. 
Nor'-foZk, 163, 195. 
Nor'-? - is-town, 191. 
North A-mer'-i-ca, 1, 120. 
North Car-o-ll'-na, 145, 162, 

205, 209, 210, 217, 219, 221, 

231, 242. 
North Da-ko'-ta, 52, 245, 246, 

249, 250, 279, 354, 363, 408. 
No'-va Sco'-tia (sco'-sha), 19, 

357, 358, 365, 366, 371. 



354, 
416, 



202, 
222, 

248, 

352, 



Oahu (wa'-ho), 339. 

Ook'-land, 314. 

Oats, 247, 363, 364, 408. 

Ocean Currents, 63. 

Og'-den, 299, 312. 

O-hl'-o, 132, 166, 170, 174, 234, 238, 

239, 245, 252, 255, 268, 275, 277, 

354, 405, 408, 409, 411, 412, 416, 

419, 420. 
Oil City, 173. 
Ok-la-ho'-ma, 230, 233. 
Ok-la-ho'-ma City, 230. 
Old Point Comfort, 162. 
O'-le-an, 173. 
O'-ma-ha, 251, 273. 
On-ta'-ri-o, 352, 364, 365, 371. 
On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, 167, 357, 364, 

369, 370. 
Oranges, 204, 216, 297, 299-301, 

333, 384, 411. 
Or'-e-gon, 283, 285, 286, 294, 314, 

316, 317, 320, 416. 



O-ri-za'-ba, 378. 
Osh'-kosh, 254. 
Os-we'-go, 180. 
Ot'-£a-wa, 352, 358, 369, 370. 
Ou-ray 1 , 290. 
Oysters, 163, 417. 

Pa'-go Pa'-go, 341. 
Pa-la-wan', Pig. 270. 
Pan-a-ma', 392. 
Pan-a-ma' Canal, 392. 
Pan-a-ma', Isthmus, 23, 282, 392. 
Pat'-er-son, 180. 
Paw-tuck'-et, 145. 
Pe'-ne-plam, 126. 
Penrc-syl-va'-ni-a, 4, 132, 136, 160, 

163, 166, 169, 170, 173, 174, 178, 

187, 191, 192, 193, 198, 203, 218, 

255, 256, 258, 331, 405, 409, 411, 

412, 413, 416, 419, 420. 
Pe-nob'-scot, 130. 
Pen-sa-co'-la, 207. 
Pe-o'-ri-a, 245, 247, 273, 421. 
Pepper, 333, 386. 
Pe'-ter-bpr-o, 371. 
Petroleum, 173, 255, 314, 365, 

413. 
Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 178, 180; 184, 191- 

193, 419, 422, 426, 430. 
Phil'-ip-pine Islands, 40, 214, 315, 

318, 338, 341-348, 410, 424. 
Phosphates (fos'-fat), 219. 
Pzed'-mont Plateau, 157, 200. 
Pierre (pe-ar'), Fig. 178. 
PiWs'-burg (berg), 98, 170, 173, 

178, 179, 192, 220, 223, 275. 
PiWs'-field, 145. 

Plants of North America, 76-92. 
Ponce (or pon-'tha), 336. 
Ponf-char-train', Lake, 225. 



INDEX 



467 



Po-po-cat-e-pe'-tl, 378. 
Population, 404, 405. 
Port Ar'-thur, 370. 
Port' au (o) Prinze, 395. 
Port'-land, Me., 131, 136, 148. 
Port' -land, Ore., 285, 316. -"' 

Por'-to Ri'-co (re'-ko), 214, 330- 

336, 337, 379, 394, 410, 424. 
Ports'-mouth, 149. 
Po-to'-mac River, 159. 
Pottery, 179, 260. 
Poughkeepsie (po-kip'-si), 191. 
Prai'-ries, 236. 
Prevailing Westerlies, 50. 
Pribilof (pre'-bel-of) Islands, 327. 
Prince Edward Island, 352, 357, 

358, 364. 
Prov'-i-dence, 145, 147, 149, 421. 
Prov'-ince-town, 136. 
Puebla (pweb'-la), 388. 
Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 292, 293, 298. 
Pueblo Indians, 94, 306, 380. 
Pu'-get Sound, 19, 285, 317. 

Quarrying, 133, 219, 254. 
Quebec (kwe-bek'), 101, 352, 368. 
Quebec (kwe-bek') (province), 352, 

356. 
Quincy (kwin'-zi), 111., 273. 
Quincy (kwin'-zi), Mass., 133. 

Railways, 151, 185, 191, 238, 263, 

287, 428, 429, 430. 
Rain, 39-56. 
Raleigh (ra'-li), 222. 
Ranching (see Cattle Ranching). 
Rangely (ranj'-li) Lakes, 152. 
Rainier (ra'-ner), Mt., 285. 
Read'-ing, 178. 
Revolution of Earth, 30. 



RTiode Is'-land, 145, 149, 155, 419. 
Rice, 212, 339, 345, 384. 
Rich'-mond, 166, 191, 276. 
Rio Grande (re'-o), 287. 
_Ro-a-noke', 178. 
Roch'-es-ter, 167, 169, 180. 
Rock'-y Mountains, 203, 283, 354. 
Rome, 220. 

Rotation, effect of, 43. 
Rut'-land, 135. 

Sac-ra-men'-to, 296, 314. 

Sag'-i-naio, 254. 

Sag'-we-nay River, 353. 

St. Ai('-gus-tine (ten), 205. 

Saint Croix' (krwa), 395, 397. 

St. E-li'-as, Mt., 323. 

St. Hel'-ens (enz), Mt., 8. 

St. John, 357, 371. 

St. John's, 358, 361. 

St. Joseph, 275. 

St. Laio'-renge, Gulf of, 20. 

St. Law'-rence River, 351, 355, 366. 

St. Louis (lo'-is), 99, 223, 227, 242, 

245, 247, 251, 269, 273, 276. 
St. Paul, 189, 223, 247, 271, 422. 
St. Pierre (pe-air'), 352. 
St. Thomas, 397. 
St. Vin'-cent, 398. 
Sa'-lem, Mass., 145, 149, 369. 
Sa'-lem, Ore., 316. 
Salmon, 317, 325, 358, 417. 
Salt, 169, 260. 
Salt Lake City, 299, 312. 
Sa-mar', Eig. 270. 
Sa-mo'-a, 340. 
San An-to'-ni-o (ne), 229. 
San Diego (de-a'-go), 316. 
San Eran-cis'-co, 74, 281, 312-315, 

393, 418, 422, 426. 



468 



INDEX 



San Jose" (ho-sa^), 314. 

San Juan (hwan), 335, 336. 

San Luis (lo'-es) Po-to'-si (se), 

388. 
San Sal'-va-dor, 390. 
San'-ta Pe" (fa), 307. 
San-ti-a'-go (te), 332, 335. 
San'-to Do-ming'-go, 395. 
Sar-gas'-so Sea, 64. 
Sas-ka£ch'-e-wan, 352. 
Sault Ste. Marie (so-sant-ma'-ri), 

262. 
Sa-van'-Haft, 207, 213, 228. 
Schenectady (ske-nek'-ta-di), 178. 
Scran'-tpn, 171, 178. 
Seals, 327, 361, 417. 
Se-at'-fle, 296, 317, 325. 
Shas'-ta, Mt., 9, 285. 
Sheep Raising, 217, 240, 303, 363, 

416, 417. 
Shreve'-port, 228. 
Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da, Mountains, 

282, 283, 285, 311. 
Silver, 285, 288-293, 345, 365, 386, 

391, 414, 415. 
Sit'-ka, 20, 324, 325, 328. 
Slate, 136, 255. 
Slavery, 104, 209, 213, 396. 
Som f -er-vh7e, 149. 
South Car-o-li'-na, 207, 213, 222, 

231, 409. 
South Da-ko'-ta, 52, 234, 245, 253, 

260, 279, 414. 
Southern States, 200. 
Span'-iard (yard), 97, 100, 281, 334, 

345, 347, 380. 
Spo-kane', 317. 
Spring'-field, Mass., 147. 
Spring'-field, Ohio, 275. 
Standard Time, 116. 



Stock'-ton, 296. 

Stock Yards, 265. 

Storms, 53. 

Sugar, 213, 332, 339, 346, 384, 391, 

394, 398, 410. 
Sugar Maple, 132. 
Sulu (so-lo') Islands, 347. 
Summer, 26, 32. 
Su-pe'-ri-or (so), 254, 257, 261. 
Su-pe'-ri-pr, Lake (so), 256, 262. 
Sus-que-han'-na (kwe) River, 159. 
Syr'-a-cuse, 169, 178. 

Ta-co'-ma, 285, 294, 296, 317, 325, 

394. 
Tam'-pa, 219, 223, 228. 
Tam-pi'-co (pe), 388. 
Tanneries, 145, 207, 267. 
Taos Pueblo (taus pweb'-lo), 94. 
Taun'-ton, 145. 

Temperature, Distribution of, 71. 
Ten-nes-see', 135, 202, 207, 209, 

217, 219, 220, 227, 228, 231, 242. 
Territories, 229, 305, 322. 
Tex'-as, 41, 49, 143, 203, 205, 210, 

213, 217, 221, 229, 230, 232, 248, 

323, 381, 407, 409, 411, 415. 
Tides, 60. 
Tobacco, 92, 93, 165, 209, 222, 242, 

333, 346, 364, 384, 389, 391, 410. 
To-le'-do, 268. 
To-pe'-ka, 275. 
Tor-na'-does, 55. 
To-ron'-to, 358, 369, 370. 
Trade Centres, 421. 
Trade Winds, 42, 47. 
Tren'-ton, 179, 191. 
Troy, 178, 180. 
Tun'-dras, 78, 356. 
Turpentine, 207, 208. 



INDEX 



469 



Tuscon (to '-son), 293. 
Tutuila (to-to-il'-a), 340. 
Typhoons (tl-fons'), 342. 

tf-ni'-ted States, 121, 404. 
Universities, 151, 163, 191, 195, 228, 

268, 314. 
Upernivik (o-per'-ni-vik), 375. 
Upolu (6-po-lo'), 341. 
U'-taft, 285, 286, 293, 299, 320, 415. 
U'-ti-ca, 165, 180. 

Van-cou'-ver (ko), 371. 
Vegetables, 140, 166, 240. 
Veins, 8, 175, 285. 
Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz), 380, 388. 
Ver-mont', 126, 128, 132, 135, 136, 

149, 155, 219, 356. ^f5>- 

Vicks'-burg (berg), 228. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, 371. 
Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 161, 162, 166, 

167, 178, 195, 198, 202, 209, 242, 

413. 
Vir-gin'-i-a (ver) City, 290. 
Vol-ca'-noes, 8, 285, 325, 336, 341, 

378, 390, 397. 

Wal'-tham, 147. 
Wash'-ing-ton, 195, 227, 352. 
Wash'-ing-ton, Mt., 126, 153, 202. 
Wash'-ing-ton, State, 71, 73, 283, 

285, 286, 293-296, 317, 320, 362. 
Wa'-ter-bury (ber-i), 147. 
Wa'-ter-town, 163. 
"Waves, 59. 
Weather Maps, 56. 
West Indies (in'-diz), 2, 331, 341, 

393, 425. 



West Point, 191. 

West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 160, 162, 

174, 178, 193, 199, 203, 255, 412. 
Western States, 281. 
Westward Migration, 102, 234, 

281. 
Whales, 326, 361. 
Wheat, 217, 245, 296, 363, 364, 381, 

407, 408. 
Wheel'-ing, 178, 179, 275. 
White Mountains, 126, 152. 
Wich'-i-ta, 275. 

Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a), 171. 
Williamsport (wil'-yamz-port) , 163. 
Wil'-ming-tpn, 168, 178, 191, 193. 
Winds, 39-56. 
Wind'-sor, 370. 

Win-we-pe-saw'-kg, Lake, Fig. 99. 
Win'-m-peg, 363. 
Wi-no'-na, 254, 273. 
Winter, 26, 32. 
Wis-con-sin, 252, 253, 254, 257, 

258, 260, 261, 267, 268, 273, 278. 
Wool Manufacturing, 144, 419. 
Woon-sock'-et, 145. 
Worcester (wus'-ter), 147. 
Wy-5'-ming (wi), 298, 308, 319, 

416. 

Yar'-mouth, 358. 
Yel'-Zoic-stone Park, 308. 
Yonkers (yongk'-erz) , 180. 
Yo-sem'-i-te, 311. 
Yu-ca-tan', 379, 380. 
Yu'-kon River, 329, 354. 

Zinc, 260. 
Zones, 37. 



NEW IN TREATMENT AND FORM 

TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

A THREE-VOLUME SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS FOR CLASS USE 
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RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. and FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

Cornell University Teachers' College, Columbia University 



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for all study of geography. 

Relation between man and the earth is continually brought out. 

Physiographic facts about different regions clearly presented. Physio- 
graphic conditions furnish the key to human industries, transportation 
routes, location of cities, etc. 

Clear, distinct maps, giving both physical and political features and not over- 
burdened with useless detail. 

Illustrations that are not merely pictures. 

Typographical work unsurpassed. 

The cost of a complete set for five grades will be less than that of any 
competing series. 

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. 

Part I.— HOME GEOGRAPHY. The Soil. Hills. Mountains. Valleys. Rivers. Ponds 
and Lakes. The Ocean. The Air. Industry and Commerce. Government. Maps. 
References to Books, etc. 

Part II. — THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. Form and Size of the Earth. Daily Motion of 
the Earth and its Results. The Zones. Heat within the Earth and its Effects. 
The Continents and Oceans. Maps. North America. The United States: New- 
England, Middle Atlantic States, Southern States, Central States, Western States, 
Alaska. Canada and Other Countries North of the United States. Countries 
South of the United States. South America. Europe. Asia. Africa. Australia. 
The East Indies. Philippines, and Other Islands of the Pacific. Books of Reference. 
A_ppendix. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 



School No. 1 8, Rochester, N. Y. 

" Its size is a great recommendation. The clearness of the print and 
beauty of the pictures make it attractive to the child. You begin at the 
proper place. 1 never saw a Geography before that began by thoroughly 
explaining the soil to the pupils. I cannot too highly praise Part I of the 
work, and think it would be admirable for beginners in this subject." 

— Sarah M. Shelton, Principal. 

Grammar School No. 14, Rochester, N. Y. 

" I am delighted with the work, and particularly with the features of 
Home Geography. The maps are excellent, and the illustrations are the 
finest I have ever seen." 

— Richard A. Searing, Principal. 

East Bridgewater, West Bridgewater, and Raynham, Mass. 

" It seems the most rational plan of text-book that has yet appeared 
for this unsettled subject of Geography." 

— Frank O. Jones, Superintendent of Schools. 

North Plainfield, N. J. 

"The best Geography that I have ever seen." 

— II. J. WlGHTMAN, Superintendent of Schools. 

High School, Fulton, N. Y. 

" It is a gem." 

— B. G. Clapp, Principal. 

Waterbury, Conn. 

" A beautiful volume. Illustrations are of the best. The maps are 
masterpieces; better than most maps twice their size. A book of con- 
venient size with all the advantages of the larger books." 

— B. W. Tinker, Superintendent of Schools. 

South Hadley, Mass. 

" I am delighted with its many bright features. In subject-matter and 
detail it is the best elementary book which has come to my knowledge." 
— A. L. Barbour, Superintendent of Schools. 

Newburyport, Mass. 

" I have examined it with a great deal of interest. It seems to he just 
what is needed for a school text-book on that subject.' 1 '' 

— William P. Lunt, Superintendent of Schools. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 



WORKS BY RALPH S. TARR 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



FIRST BOOK OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

i2mo, Half Leather. 368 + xxviii pp. Price $1.10 

Questions to the same. Price 10 cents 

A skilful and attractive presentation of the New Physical Geography. 
The book is already in general use and is widely and favorably known as a 
text-book which combines a clear and definite statement of principles with 
scientific accuracy. 

ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

8vo. Half Leather. 488 + xxxi pp. Price $1.40 

Tarr's Physical Geography is incomparably superior to any other text-book 
on the subject. Previous to its publication this most important and interesting 
department of science was seriously handicapped by the lack of a text suitable 
for use in secondary schools. Now no subject in the High School can boast 
of a more adequate text than Tarr's " Elementary Physical Geography." 



ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY 

8vo. Half Leather. 486 pp. Price $1.40 

Suggestions and Questions to the above. Price 25 cents 

" It is far in advance of all geological text-books, whether American or 
European, and it marks an epoch in scientific instruction." — Scientific 
American. 



ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

8vo. Cloth. Price $3.50 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 



THE CHILD LIFE READERS 



ETTA AUSTIN BLAISDELL 

Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Brockton, Mass. 



I. Child Life — A First Reader .... Price 25 cents 

II. Child Life in Tale and Fable — A Second Reader. Price 35 cents 

III. Child Life in Many Lands — A Third Reader. [hi preparation 

IV. Child Life in Literature — A Fourth Reader . Price 40 cents 



The central idea of these books is to hold the child's interest, by 
giving him reading-matter (profusely illustrated) that he can under- 
stand and enjoy. The lessons, therefore, relate exclusively to child 
life. 

The First and Second Readers have easier reading-matter and more 
of it than do most of the other readers now available for first and 
second year. They have been graded with the utmost care. 

These books, beginning with the Second Reader, have been planned 
as an introduction to literature. The subject-matter, therefore, is 
confined to material of recognized literary value. 

The aim of the publishers has been to produce an artistic set of 
readers that shall be mechanically as nearly perfect as possible. 

As a unique feature in binding, they would call attention to the 
covers, which are water-proof, and can be cleansed, when soiled by 
constant handling, without injury to the book. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 



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